True Atomic-Scale Imaging in Three Dimensions 219


Figure 11. Final three-dimensional (3D) automated reconstruction of over 2,000 tungsten atoms, 69 (222) planes, imaged across >7,000 images. Coordinates in the 2D images are converted to direct space coordinates by calibrating the average nearest-neighbor’s distance to its theoretical value.


over 7,000 FIM images of a tungsten specimen. Transfor- mation from image pixels to direct space spatial coordinates is made by calibrating the average nearest-neighbor distance, in pixels, to its theoretical value. Figure 11 displays a repre- sentative coordinate for each atom, but in fact the entire list of surface sites in which the atom was detected is measured for each atom, as well as its field-evaporation time and its intensity among all images. This information has the


potential of being the foundation of advanced analyses of the field-evaporation process and quantify directly problems known to affect APT data.


CONCLUSIONS


(with a smaller detection efficiency and spatial resolution) and finally TEM. Atomic-scale 3D reconstruction is, however, extremely time consuming, and is still far from being a routine technique. In this article,we have reviewed the path toward 3D spatial resolution using FIM from early 3D FIM micrographs to automated routine 3D reconstructions. The examples pre- sented herein deal with pure elements or dilute alloys, and the obvious next step is to include chemistry to apply the techni- ques developed to date to more realistic systems and have 3D FIM be the natural instrument to analyze routinely atomic- scale features in materials science and engineering.


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


This work was partly funded by through project EMC3 labex DYNAMITE. F.V. would like also to thank W. Vandervorst


Achieving true atomic resolution in materials analysis, with a high detection efficiency, has evolved from a scientificchal- lenge to a realmaterials science need. BothTEMandAPThave pursed this goal, which was first achieved by FIM, then APT


REFERENCES


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ARMSTRONG, D.E.J., EDMONDSON, P.D. & ROBERTS, S.G. (2013). Effects of sequential tungsten and helium ion implantation on nano- indentation hardness of tungsten. Appl Phys Lett 102, 251901.


BAS, P., BOSTEL, A.,DECONIHOUT,B.&BLAVETTE,D. (1995). A general protocol for reconstruction of 3D atom probe data. Appl Surf Sci 87/88, 298–304.


BEAVAN,L., SCANLAN,R. & SEIDMAN, D. (1971). The defect structure of depleted zones in irradiated tungsten. Acta Metall. 19, 1339–1350.


BRANDON, D.G. (1964). The accurate determination of crystal orientation fromfield ion micrographs. J Sci Instrum. 41,373–375.


CASTELL, M.R., MULLER, D.A. & VOYLES, P.M. (2003). Dopant mapping for the nanotechnology age. Nat Mater. 2, 129–131.


CAZOTTES, S.,VURPILLOT, F., FNIDIKI, A., LEMARCHAND, D., BARICCO,M. &DANOIX, F. (2012). Nanometer scale tomographic investigation of fine scale precipitates in a CuFeNi granular system by three-dimensional field ion microscopy. Microsc Microanal 18(5), 1129–1134.


and IMEC for providing some of the data provided here, and the international field emission society (IFES) for its support. D.N.S. would like to thank the Materials Science Center at Cornell University [National Science Foundation (NSF) funded] and the US Department of Energy for generous support that made possible his early pioneering experiments utilizing FIM and atom probe field-ion microscopy. A MITRE evaluative study of Materials Research Laboratory Programs (MTR 7764) rated DNS’s research programs for the years 1968–1977 among the top 20 most highly rated major achievements sponsored by the NSF in the area of materials science.


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