Trans RINA, Vol 156, Part C1, Intl J Marine Design, Jan - Dec 2014
that time. Normandie's radical art deco interiors were perceived to be uncomfortable by passengers. The Queen Mary had a more conservative art deco style, which proved to be more popular. As a result, throughout her service history, the Normandie often travelled with less than half her complement of passengers. However, unlike her competition she did not require government subsidies in service, with her income covering her operating expenses [7].
1.2 HEALTH RISKS OF FREQUENT FLYING AND CRUISE SHIPS
Passenger well-being on aircraft is influenced by cabin environmental conditions which interact with individual passenger characteristics such as age and health issues. The cabin environment is composed of different aspects, some of which have a direct influence on gastrointestinal functions and may directly generate nausea, such as cabin
vibration. It has been shown that available cabin pressure during normal flight
pressure, oxygen saturation, and motion or altitude can significantly inhibit
gastric emptying. Other aspects of the cabin environment such as space and variability of seating, air quality, and noise, also have been shown to modulate discomfort and nausea during
flights. Individual characteristics and health issues also passenger have been
demonstrated to increase vulnerability to adverse health outcomes and discomfort. Low cabin pressure leads to expansion of gases, up to 35% when ascending from sea level to 8000ft. Because pressure changes during ascent and descent occur very slowly, the majority of travellers experience no adverse effects. However, gas in body cavities can cause discomfort if pressure equalisation is not
possible. On long-distance flights, cabin crew
reported significantly more bloating compared to periods of ground-based activities [8].
Acceptable air quality in commercial aircraft is important for the comfort and well-being of passengers and flight crews. Inadequate air quality may cause symptoms of fatigue, headache, and dizziness, as well as respiratory discomfort. Cabin air quality depends on the amount of air flow, cabin air distribution, the proportion of recycled air in the aircraft cabin environment, the relative humidity, and the number of people in the cabin. CO2 concentration is considered an important measure of air quality, with a recommended concentration less than 1000ppm. Measurements in business class flights have shown concentrations greater than 1000ppm with peaks of
concentrations were found during take-off and landing, when
2900ppm. Where the extremely high CO2 power
requirements reduce the amount of
ventilation. Most commercial aircraft are only capable to provide 2.8 L/s/p of outside air to their passenger cabins. Whereas, the ASHRAE recommended level is 7 L/s/p to maintain CO2 concentrations below 1000 ppm. Use of recirculated air should be limited to not more than 50% [8]. However,
the value of using
translates to a saving of operating fuel costs of 1-2% [9] The environmental control system used in commercial aircraft restricts the spread of airborne pathogens and the perceived risk is higher than the actual risk [10]. Travelling by aircraft includes exposure to a high level of engine noise, as well as noise from cabin ventilation system. In-flight measurements
have not revealed
prolonged levels above 85 dB. Some aspects of air travel are associated with adverse health effects, but major medical incidents are rare during flying. Frequent flying is inevitable for business people due to the need for face- to-face meetings to establish and maintain client relationships, in spite of advances in communication technology. Most of these risks may not affect people who are healthy but may impact those with certain chronic medical conditions [8].
Most of the aforementioned issues of frequent flying
could be addressed by travelling on a transatlantic liners as staying at sea level avoids the pressure variation issues. However, there
are a number of potential health
issues identified by Kak [11] associated with cruise ships as they are virtually travelling cities with common food and water supplies, shared sanitation and air-conditioning systems, and a large number of individuals travelling together. An infecting agent has the potential to enter either the food and water supply or the sanitation systems in these ships, be distributed widely across the ship, and cause significant morbidity. In addition, the close proximity between the passengers and the crew members in semi-confined spaces with interactions in the dining halls and recreational rooms increases the possibility of organisms being transmitted among them. The average cruise passenger is often an elderly individual and may have chronic illnesses, which can lead to them to being more susceptible to infection.
A study of the epidemiology of injuries and illnesses among
passengers on cruise ships revealed that
respiratory tract infections were the most common cause of seeking medical attention by passengers and the crew members aboard the ship. Among the bacterial pathogens causing respiratory infections on cruise ships, the most common infections reported have been
caused
Legionella species. The factors involved in these outbreaks often involve contamination of the ship’s water supply, the spas or pools, or its air conditioning system. There have been numerous outbreaks of gastroenteritis on cruise ships. The semi- confined setting of the ships with common source of food and water easily lends itself to outbreaks of diarrheal diseases. Most outbreaks of gastroenteritis acquired on cruise ships are caused by Noroviruses. These infections are often facilitated by the close living quarters, common food supplies, and social interactions that occur on cruise ships. Several routes including aerosolization while vomiting and environmental contamination by symptomatic patients or asymptomatic carriers can spread these viruses [11].
recirculating air
by
© 2014: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects
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