Trans RINA, Vol 157, Part C1, Intl J Marine Design, Jan –Dec 2015 which humans might cause when operating or
maintaining the system be identified and eliminated, trapped or managed). Subsequently a seventh domain was added, the Organisational and Social domain, which encompasses issues such as culture, safety management, information sharing and interoperability. Taking a system-wide approach means that Human Factors can now ‘add value’. Examples of this are already appearing in the military domain (Human Factors Integration Defence Technology Centre, [22]). an end-to-end system perspective,
For example, taking good equipment
design simplifies operating (and hence training) requirements, making training faster and cheaper (less time is spent in unproductive – not revenue producing – work).
requirements and is more efficient. Simultaneously, better equipment design (e.g. interface design or design for maintainability) and
better specified training
produces superior, more error-free (safer) performance. Careful crew selection processes may be more expensive initially but they subsequently reduce the drop out and failure rate in training (also expensive). Analysis and modification of crew rostering practices can produce rotas which produce more efficient utilisation of crew, reduce fatigue, increase well-being and simultaneously enhance safety. Such efforts can also reduce stress and decrease employee turnover. At the same time a well- considered Human Factors aspect in a company’s safety management produces
system makes it the operations.
Implementing good Human Factors practices into the design can make considerable through life savings.
It
can also avoid costly re-works as a result of design mis- specifications. For example, for the UK Royal Navy’s Single Role Minehunters, it was discovered, after having accepted the first of five ships into service, that it was difficult to recover the Remote Control Mine Disposal System back on board the ship in high seas. To address the problem, a better crane with a remote control facility was installed; a platform for the operator was made and an additional recovery hook and pole was provided. This was a simple manual handling problem which was overlooked during development which eventually cost £1.9 million to make the design changes to overcome these difficulties. The Human Factors National Advisory Committee for Defence and Aerospace [23] describes examples of the benefits of taking a wider socio- technical/HSI
approach to equipment design. The
developer of an aircraft engine who adopted such an approach reduced the number of tools required for the line maintenance of a new turbine from over 100 to just 10; fewer specialist skills were needed further allowing a consolidation
in the number of maintenance trades
required which also resulted in an overall reduction in training time.
The Human Factors Engineering (HFE) component of HFI is usually the starting point for the HSI process.
cheaper to run and information required to promote safer Training is better targeted to the operator’s
From a Human Factors perspective, safety is all about the error ‘troika’: prevent error; trap error, or mitigate its consequences (Helmreich, Merritt and Wilhelm, [25]). Prevention of
design (as seen in many computer interfaces which will not accept an invalid input) or countermeasures in ship operations.
error may be achieved by equipment through procedural
However, even
when an error has been committed, there should be procedures which trap the error in a timely manner. Continual crew monitoring of position should ensure that even if an error has not been prevented or trapped, the ship should not enter an unsafe condition (i.e. the error should be
mitigated). Other approaches take an
integrated human/system approach to error prevention, such as formal error identification methods. These deal specifically with hardware and procedures rather than looking more widely across the organisation (e.g. examining its practices and culture) – a more systemic approach. Reason [26] advocates this latter approach for removing the
underlying poor training; communication) is factors promoting error,
suggesting that addressing the ‘general failure types’ (such as poor tasking; poor scheduling; poor design; poor procedures;
poor planning and bad the most cost effective approach.
Such Performance Shaping Factors (PSFs) are conditions which substantially increase the likelihood of human error in a given situation. O’Hare [27] divided PSFs into those external to the person (for example, environmental conditions; equipment design; operating manuals and procedures; training provided and poor supervision) and those internal to the person (including their emotional state;
physical condition; stress and experience; and task knowledge).
The US Department of Defense specifies four generic categories of barrier to poor human performance that may be applied in any system.
systems should be defended at the highest level possible (and at multiple levels). The hierarchy of barriers from MIL-STD-882C [28] is:
Design for minimum risk – Eliminate the hazard from the system if possible. Design the system so the accident cannot happen.
Ideally, safety critical fatigue; and
One of the objectives of HFE is to minimize the potential for error and promote the performance of assigned activities as efficiently and effectively as possible. Human error can be a direct cause or a significant contributing factor for accidents onboard vessels and offshore facilities. However, ‘Human Error’ in itself is not
incidents.
an explanation to the It
is merely the
cause of accidents and very beginning of an
explanation. Human errors are systematically connected to features of an operator’s training, their tools and tasks as it has its roots in the wider socio-technical system. The question of ‘Human Error’ alone is an oversimplified belief in the roots of failure (Dekker, [24]).
C-158
© 2015: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects
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