Chapter 4: Water GLOBAL GENDER AND ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK In 47 countries, areas or territories, less than half the population uses improved sanitation in 2015 Energy Figure 2.2.4: Share of population using improved sanitation, 2015 Chapter 2


91–100% 76–90% 50–75% <50%


Insufficient data or not applicable Source: UNICEF and WHO (2015)


Figure 2.2.5: Urban and rural trends in sanitation coverage (%)


6 8


7


2 6


10 38 23 79 82 4 51 35 Urban


Open defecation Unimproved


Rural


Shared Improved


Source: UNICEF and WHO (2015) 64


means the capital cost of establishing a safe sanitation and wastewater system in rural areas is often entirely on the shoulders of the users, whereas in urbanized areas public or private investors typically bear the capital costs and users pay user fees. For many developing countries these options are not within reach: most wastewater is discharged directly into waterways (Figure 2.2.6).


17 7


25


Monitoring gender differences in access to improved sanitation is challenging. While some cross-sectional surveys (e.g. on health) may assess disparities in access to sanitation between female- and male- headed households, they seldom provide data at the intrahousehold level, where access to sanitation really counts. Available data on gender differences in access to sanitation show mixed findings. In 2006 female- headed households in Mongolia had 10% higher access to sanitation than male-headed ones, but 10% lower access to water, which might be a function of the cost of a water connection (Figure 2.2.7). However, in Niger in 2008 female-headed households had lower access to sanitation but higher access to water (UNSD 2015). To better understand the gendered nature of access to improved sanitation, new indicators are required that will provide detailed micro-level gender- disaggregated data.


The great majority of rural households rely on pit latrines outside their dwellings. If there is no space for latrines, individuals resort to open defecation. In urban slums and informal settlements there is usually no room to build latrines, or there are no tenure or property rights that would make this possible, so defecation in the open, open sewage canals and shared public latrines are the only options. Open defecation rates are declining almost everywhere except Sub-Saharan Africa, where rates are still increasing; however, it is the only resort for about a billion people in the world.


Open defecation is generally a greater health and safety risk for women and girls, especially during menstruation;


1990


2015 1990


2015


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