CHAPTER 2.2 DOMESTIC WATER AND SANITATION Figure 2.2.2: Access to clean water But women still spend


2 billion people gained access to clean drinking water


from 1990 to 2010


Entrenched gendering of water-related roles creates expectations that do not serve either women or men well and are barriers to social change. In Uganda, for example, men who collect water for domestic use are negatively perceived by women as unable to afford water from vendors, as not having children, or even as being mentally unstable (UNEP et al. 2013).


In many cases the water collection burden could be alleviated through changes in transport. However, access to wheelbarrows, carts, bicycles, scooters and draught animals, among other types of transport, is heavily gendered. There are major gender inequalities in access to such transport, as it is mostly owned and used by men. Indeed, most transport programmes and initiatives are determined by men and designed for men, and men are the major beneficiaries (Bamberger and Davis eds. 2001; Starkey 2001; Fernando 1997).


16 million hours per day


collecting water in 25 sub-Saharan countries


WOMEN


16 MILLION HOURS


MEN


6 MILLION HOURS


CHILDREN


4 MILLION HOURS


Source: UN Women (2016)


Men are also much more likely to adopt new forms of transport: women are marginalized in using these means of transport by their lower purchasing power and because acquiring and using them is often restricted by notions of cultural impropriety (Bryceson et al. 2003; Bamberger and Davis eds. 2001). Cultural norms in many countries prohibit women and girls riding bicycles, driving motorized vehicles or using what are considered to be male tools. Even where such norms do not exist, men in many countries tend to appropriate the most efficient types of transport (Bamberger and Davis eds. 2001).


The gendered profile of water collection varies with access to mechanization. Men and boys are much more likely


to collect water when they can use


Gender divisions of transportation and labour exacerbate women’s burdens. Rural Kenya, 2014. Photo credit: © Gemma Bulos


mechanized transport like bikes, scooters and trucks. A survey of water collection in Mongolia showed that in Ulaanbaatar men made up the majority of water collectors across all forms of water collection, but were particularly prominent in water collection by vehicle and by animal (Hawkins and Seager 2010). In 70% of urban households that collected water by vehicle men were the sole collectors, and in urban households that used horses to collect water only men performed this task. In rural Mongolian households in which water was collected by vehicle (mainly motorbike) men had sole responsibility for 48% of water collection; when it was collected by hand cart, they had sole responsibility for 31%, and in households that collected water by hand they had sole responsibility for 25% (Hawkins and Seager 2010). In rural Kenya, a study similarly showed that 87% of women who collected water reportedly


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