2.5 MARINE AND COASTAL COMMUNITIES AND ECOSYSTEMS
and exposure to a variety of diseases and hazardous chemicals. Fatal and non-fatal injuries are frequent. Musculoskeletal disorders of the neck and shoulders occur in 31-35% of processing workers; occupational asthma associated with fish processing is common, as are skin conditions, infections and frostbite (Jeebhay and Lopata 2012; Jeebhay et al. 2004).
Disproportionate employment of women in canning facilities has numerous economic and social ripple effects. Women who migrate to look for jobs in factories often leave behind household and childrearing duties, as well as sustenance activities such as gardening. Because wages in canning factories are typically low, many women experience a “well-being deficit” while they are employed there: what they are paid does not offset the costs of increased workload, poor working conditions resulting in declining health, transmission of sexually transmitted diseases, and increased alcohol and drug abuse (World Bank et al. 2009; Sullivan and Bidesi 2008).
Formal employment in the maritime industry:
The maritime industry is one of the world’s largest industries, with employees working not only directly in shipping and fishing but also in law, marine administration and pollution mitigation, as well as in positions as ship owners, brokers, charters and harbour masters (Aggrey 2000). Despite this wide range of opportunities, women comprise only an estimated 2% of the world’s maritime workforce; 94% of these women work in the cruise and ferry sectors. In the first major assessment of women in maritime positions in 2003, the Seafarers International Research Centre determined that women constituted 10% of the seafaring workforce in Scandinavian countries, 8% in the United Kingdom and 4% in Germany (Sulpice 2011).
Women are similarly absent from leadership in seafood companies. In 2015 only one of the world’s top 100 seafood companies, the Japanese-owned Maruzen Chiyoda Suisan Co., was run by a woman (FAO 2015; Tallaksen 2014). In Norway, due to national legislation requiring a minimum of 40% women on the boards of publicly traded companies, the six Norwegian companies that are among the top 100 seafood companies globally have boards on which there are 39% women; however, that share falls to 21% on
Women work in disproportionate numbers in fish processing factories. Photo credit: © Sportsmens Cannery
the companies’ management teams, to which gender composition quotas do not apply (Bertrand et al. 2014).
Maritime colleges recognize the importance of training women. The World Maritime University in Malmö, Sweden, founded by the International Maritime Organization
(IMO), seeks to ensure that women
represent 30% of graduates (WMU 2014). The IMO’s Women in Development
Programme focuses on
equipping women in the Caribbean with maritime industry skills as a way to address poverty (Grant and Vivette 2015). Despite such efforts, including a 25- year focus on gender integration by the IMO and the existence of trade associations such as the Women’s International Shipping & Trading Association, women lag far behind in terms of their share of employment in the maritime industries (IMO 2016).
Offshore oil, mining and seabed extraction:
Extractive industries potentially provide development opportunities for communities, even when they operate offshore. However, for millions of people in the world the reality is that these industries rarely benefit most communities in any significant way and are often destructive, disrupting the social fabric, depleting natural resources that are necessary for survival, and increasing health burdens in already vulnerable households (Box 2.5.1).
In Ghana offshore oil exploration is responsible for a steady decrease in the availability of fish for women to sell or process (Adusah-Karikari 2015). Women have reported that fishing is not allowed within a 500-metre radius of rigs, while fishermen are continually harassed
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