SCP


Cross-cut Chapter 3 GLOBAL GENDER AND ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK Food Fish Box 2.4.7: Norms of femininity and masculinity in cosmetics consumption Chapter 4: Forest


The global cosmetics market is worth hundreds of billions of dollars per year. In the Asia-Pacific region alone it is expected to reach an annual US$126.8 billion by 2020 (PRNewswire 2015). Cosmetics marketing targets women, and women are greater cosmetics consumers than men. According to a survey in the United States, women used an average of 12 personal care products per day containing 168 unique ingredients. Men used an average of six of these products per day containing 85 unique ingredients. More than one-quarter of all women and one out of every 100 men used at least 15 personal care products per day (EWG 2004).


Water Energy Chapter 2


Safety data are lacking for most chemicals in makeup, shampoo, deodorants, skin lotions, nail polish and other personal care products (WECF 2016). In the United States releases of such products onto the market are not heavily regulated (FDA 2015). Substances in personal care products may include lead, toxic metals, parabens, triclosan phthalates, mineral oils, nanomaterials and formaldehyde (Campaign for Safe Cosmetics 2016; WECF 2016; Bocca et al. 2014); even if individual substances have been tested for human health effects, the effects of synergetic exposure (the “chemical cocktail” effect) remain mostly untested (WECF 2016). Many chemicals in cosmetics are known to be carcinogenic, mutagenic, neurotoxic or bioaccumulative, while others are suspected to be one or more of these (Steinemann et al. 2015; Colborn et al. 1996). The United States- based Environmental Working Group estimates that one out of every 24 women is exposed daily to personal care product ingredients that are known or probable reproductive and developmental toxins linked to impaired fertility or developmental harm to foetuses (EWG 2004). Many common chemicals in cosmetics, especially phthalates and parabens, have been linked in animal studies to male genital birth defects, reproductive disorders in women, oestrogenic effects, decreased sperm counts and altered pregnancy outcomes; there is no definitive evidence of the same effects in humans, but widespread exposures, primarily to phthalates, have been shown to occur through cosmetics use (Matsumoto et al. 2008; Barrett 2005). Phthalates are linked with early puberty onset in girls and boys and with breast cancer in women (Lynn et al. 2007; Scott et al. 2008; WECF 2016; Mouritsen et al. 2013; Steingraber 2007). Parabens have been shown to have oestrogenic and endocrine-disrupting effects and have been detected in human breast tumor tissue, indicating absorption, although the route and causal associations have yet to be confirmed (Harvey and Darbre 2004; Colborn et al. 1996). A recent study revealed that nearly one-third of cosmetic products in Austria, Germany and Switzerland contain endocrine-disrupting substances, mostly parabens (Erwand 2013). Skin-lightening products, most of which contain mercury, are in wide use in Africa and Asia and among racial minority populations in Europe and North America. An estimated 77% of women in Nigeria and 59% in Togo, regularly use skin lighteners, while in India 61% of the dermatological products market consists of skin lightening products (WHO 2011).


In addition to the health effects of exposures to chemicals in cosmetics, the production and disposal of these products cause widespread pollution and environmental damage. Releases of oestrogenic substances and microplastics, in particular, into aquatic and drinking water systems result in widespread environmental degradation and expand the circle of exposures to hazardous chemicals (Cassani and Gramatica 2015; Boxall et al. 2012; Colborn et al. 1996; American Rivers 2016). The highest growth rate in the global cosmetics industry is in emerging economies. In 2010 Brazil, China, India and Russia together accounted for 21% of the world’s “beauty industry” while emerging markets accounted for over 80% of growth in global sales in cosmetics in 2011 (Lopaciuk and Loboda 2013). As these economies shift from early industrialization into late industrialization with a growing service sector, there is evidence that the explicit demand for “attractive” workers in the service sector is fueling this growth. Scholars of China suggest that increases in women’s consumption choices have intensified their concern with physical appearance, as indicated by a growing interest in beauty pageants, plastic surgery and other forms of cosmetics (Xu and Feiner 2007). Some observers suggest that in China, among other countries in the midst of this economic shift, notions of femininity and beauty seem to be shifting to favor more ‘commodified’ Western attitudes (Nolan 2008).


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