2.6 FORESTS
consuming other wildlife products may be believed to increase men’s sexual prowess, and it is common for some women to consume products derived from wildlife such as bear bile, mostly for health purposes; nevertheless, the majority of men have indicated leisure and entertainment as the main reasons for their interest in wildlife (Liu et al. 2016;Hance 2015).
Transnational criminal networks engaged in illegal wildlife trade may also traffic in drugs, arms, toxic waste, natural resources, counterfeit consumer goods and persons. Billions of dollars per year from these illegal activities flow through the global economy, distorting local economies, reducing legitimate business
revenues, deteriorating social conditions
and fuelling conflicts (Lawson and Vines 2014). The wildlife trade and other types of environmental crime – whether driven by “greed” or “need” (Roe 2014) – have impacts on forest ecosystems and biodiversity and the welfare of forest-dependent communities.
In 2015 a South African ranger group consisting mostly of women, the Black Mamba Anti-Poaching Unit, was one of the winners of the top United Nations environmental prize. Since its inception in 2013 the 26-member unit has reduced snaring by 76%, removed more than 1000 snares, and put five poachers’ camps and two bush meat kitchens out of action (UNEP 2015).
Black Mamba team Photo credit: © Black Mamba APU
Artisanal and small-scale mining
Mining on or near forest land can result in forest loss and fragmentation, soil degradation and loss, greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity loss and water pollution, as well as increasing competition for land and water (OSISA 2015; Perch and Byrd 2015; Wickham et al. 2013). The social and economic impacts of (commonly land-based) extractive industry operations include displacement of local communities, including indigenous people, increased threats of food security and loss of livelihoods in forest-dependent communities. Many of
Box 2.6.2: Characteristics of artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM)
Artisanal and small-scale mining needs to be managed sustainably in order to make positive contributions to development without harming human health and the environment. The size and scope of ASM vary considerably across localities, countries and regions. These general characteristics have been identified: • ranges from informal to formal, and can be disorganized or well organized; • strongly linked to rural poverty and lack of better livelihood alternatives;
• involves mining of precious stones and metals (such as diamonds, rubies, gold and silver) as well as industrial minerals (such as stone aggregate, sand, clay, and salt) and some base metals (such as tin, tungsten or tantalum);
• livelihood activities can take place at all stages of the mining value chain; • participation fluctuates with commodity prices; • can include scavenging from and/or coexistence with large-scale mining concessions; • sometimes seasonal, with mining alternated with farming, fishing and other livelihood activities; • typically labour-intensive and low-technology; • offers very low wages and insecure, unsafe and exploitative jobs (child labour, physical and sexual abuse of women, migration, HIV/AIDS and poor sanitation);
• often includes a series of intermediary buyers, who frequently operate illegally; • often has negative repercussions for the local environment and rural livelihoods (un-rehabilitated excavations, effluent dumping, improperly stored waste, dust emissions, releases of chemicals such as cyanide and mercury, acid mine water, river siltation and deforestation); • has been associated with conflict and war.
Source: World Bank and Gender Action Plan (2012) 155
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