2.7. IN A HIGHLY CONNECTED AND CHANGING WORLD: CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES


and responsibilities to women and men during the reconstruction process (UN Women 2012).


Conventional views of war and conflict often assume the major impacts fall on male combatants. However, a broader view of conflict as a process that unfolds over a longer time than simply a period of acute armed fighting reveals that in many ways women are more adversely affected than men (Enloe 2016; Plümper and Neumayer 2006; Garfield and Neuget 2000). Mirroring findings for disasters more generally, it is at locations where women face daily discrimination in peacetime that they are most severely affected in times of conflict (Enloe 2016; Plümper and Neumayer 2006). Factors contributing to adverse life outcomes for women during conflicts include:


• exposure to dangers arising from the difficulties of securing water, food and fuel, over and above normal family care;


• poor health outcomes as a result of damage to (collateral) health infrastructure and disruption of health services;


• increased risk of infectious and sexually transmitted diseases due to conflict-generated displacement and sexual violence;


• economic impacts arising from rising prices, which make it more difficult to meet basic needs;


• targeted violence against women and girls through trafficking, sexual slavery and systematic rape used as a weapon of war.


In the past decade, considerable scholarship has emerged concerning relationships between violent conflicts and natural resources (UNEP, UN Women, PBSO and UNDP 2013; Koubi et al. 2014; Mildner et al. 2011). UNEP estimates that at least 40% of all intrastate conflicts in the last 60 years have had a direct link to natural resources, and natural resource exploitation has fuelled and financed at least 18 conflicts since 1990 (UNEP 2009). Inequalities and grievances related to natural resource rights, access and control are significant contributing factors with respect to many of the world’s most protracted conflicts, including those in the Middle East and the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Moreover, many fragile states are now tackling additional shocks and stresses associated with climate change – including increasing resource scarcity and food insecurity – which risk aggravating existing tensions or generating new conflicts.


Natural resources underpin livelihoods for the


vast majority of people worldwide. They are often fundamental to economic recovery and development


Figure 2.7.1: The world conflict map: active armed conflicts in March 2016


Red circles around dots indicate a conflict’s severity; green dots indicate post-conflict zones. Source: ConflictMap.org – http://www.conflictmap.org/.


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