3 Brasil sem Miséria (Brazil without Poverty) has strengthened and expanded the Zero Hunger Program, while also developing com- plementary programs, although the core pillars of the Zero Hun- ger Program were maintained. (For further details, refer to www.
brasilsemmiseria.gov.br/documentos/mds_revista_ingles.pdf.
4 Despite this success in implementation and in South–South learn- ing, it is important to mention that while poverty in Brazil has fallen, based on the literature it is impossible to know the impacts of the various interventions on well-being among smallholders. Impact evaluations among agricultural interventions have been nearly nonexistent, including even the PAA (see note 2), which has been exported to five African countries. The major policy that does not fit this description is Bolsa Família, which solely distrib- utes cash to families that fall below the poverty line and that meet the program conditions.
5 See M. Zeigler and G. Truitt Nakata, The Next Global Breadbas- ket. On the other hand, when looking at the average growth rate of agricultural productivity since the mid-1990s, similar results are obtained. See K. Fuglie, “Productivity Growth and Technology Capital in the Global Agricultural Economy,” in Productivity and Growth in Agriculture: An International Perspective, edited by K. Fuglie, S. L. Land, and V. Eldon Ball (Oxfordshire, England: CAB International, 2012).
6 Although agricultural productivity in the LAC region has con- sistently increased since 1980, it has not seen the same level of acceleration that occurred in the United States in the 1990s. Agri- cultural productivity in the 1980s was around six times higher in the United States than in the LAC region; in 2009, it was around 15 times higher; and in 2013, it was more than 10 times higher. True, there has been significant improvement in LAC the past two years, but there is still a significant gap to cover. The main increases come from Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, and Peru, which have increased agricultural output while maintaining the same amounts of inputs (land, labor, fertilizer, machinery, and livestock) in the agricultural production process, thereby enhancing their produc- tivity growth. On the other hand, productivity remains the lowest in Bolivia, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras.
7 J. Avelino and G. Rivas, La Roya Anaranjada del Cafeto, Versión No. 1, 2013; and Organización Internacional del Café, Informe sobre el brote de la roya del café en Centroamérica y plan de acción para combatir la plaga. (London: 2013).
8 International Coffee Organization, Indicator Prices,
www.ico.org/ prices/
p2.htm.
9 Red de cooperación integrada por instituciones del café de Gua- temala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panamá, República Dominicana, y Jamaica.
10 IICA y PROMECAFE, “La crisis del café en Mesoamérica: Causas y respuestas apropiadas,” June 2013; and Naciones Unidas, Estima- ciones realizadas por el World Forum Programme.
11 K. Zezima and E. O’Keefe, “Obama Calls Wave of Children across U.S.-Mexican Border ‘Urgent Humanitarian Situation,” The Wash- ington Post, June 2, 2014.
12 A. Caldwell, “Border Patrol Resources Stretched Thin as Children Illegally Enter U.S. Alone,” PBS News Hour, The Rundown, June 5, 2014.
NOTES 127
13 M. Roig-Franzia, W. Lowery, and N. Chokshi, “Border Crisis Creates Discomfort for State, Local Politicians over Housing Children,” The Washington Post, July 23, 2014.
14 M. Torero, Prioritizing Public Expenditure to Minimize Infant Migration from El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras (Washing- ton, DC: Inter-American Development Bank, 2014).
15 The Human Development Index is a summary measure created by the United Nations Development Programme that reflects achieve- ments in key dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, being knowledgeable, and having a decent standard of living.
16 As shown by C. Monteiro, M. D’Aquino Benicio, W. Conde, S. Konno, A. Lovadino, A. Barros, and C. Victora, “Narrowing Socio- economic Inequality in Child Stunting: The Brazilian Experience, 1974–2007,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 88, no. 4 (April 2010): 241–320, accessed December 29, 2014,
www.who.int/ bulletin/volumes/88/4/09-069195.pdf?ua=1.
17 M. Torero, “Targeting Investments to Link Farmers to Markets: A Framework for Capturing the Heterogeneity of Smallholder Farm- ers,” in New Directions for Smallholder Agriculture, edited by P. Hazell and A. Rahman (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2013).
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