8 Ibid.
9 D. D. Headey, J.F . Hoddinott, D. Ali, T. Roman, and M. Dereje, The Other Asian Enigma, IFPRI Discussion Paper 1358 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 2014).
10 Using a similar method to study change over time within geo- graphic areas suggests that reductions in open defecation can explain much of the improvement in average child height in Cam- bodia between 2005 and 2010. P. Kov, S. Smets, D. Spears, and S. Vyas, Growing Taller among Toilets: Evidence from Changes in Sanitation and Child Height in Cambodia, 2005–2010, Working Paper (New Delhi: Research Institute for Compassionate Econom- ics, 2013).
11 P. Hathi et al., Place and Child Health: The Interaction of Popu- lation Density and Sanitation Behavior in Developing Countries, Policy Research Working Paper 7124 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2014).
12 A. Ghosh, A. Gupta, and D. Spears, “Are Children in West Ben- gal Shorter Than Children in Bangladesh?” Economic and Political Weekly XLIX, no. 8: 21–24.
13 J. H. Humphrey, “Child Undernutrition, Tropical Enteropathy, Toilets, and Handwashing,” The Lancet 374, no. 9694 (2009): 1032–1035.
14 R. J. Crane, K. Jones, and J. A. Berkley, “Environmental Enteric Dysfunction–An Overview,” Community-based Management of Acute Malnutrition [CMAM] Forum Technical Brief (World Health Organization, World Food Programme, United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition, and United Nations Children’s Fund, 2014).
15 A. Lin et al., “Household Environmental Conditions Are Associ- ated with Enteropathy and Impaired Growth in Rural Bangladesh,” American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 89, no. 1 (2013): 130–137.
16 M. Kosek et al., “Fecal Markers of Intestinal Inflammation and Permeability Associated with the Subsequent Acquisition of Linear Growth Deficits in Infants,” American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 88, no. 2 (2013): 390–396.
17 A. J. Prendergast et al., “Stunting Is Characterized by Chronic Inflammation in Zimbabwean Infants,” PLOS ONE 9 no. 2 (2013): e86928.
18 M. L. Alzua et al., Impact Evaluation of Community-led Total Sanitation (CLTS) In Rural Mali, CEDLAS Working Paper (La Plata, Argentina: Universidad Nacional de La Plata, 2014).
19 Their report of an effect of 0.16 standard deviations on child height and of a 30 percentage point difference in sanitation cov- erage can be used to construct an instrumental variables estimate of 0.53 for the effect of the fraction defecating in the open on child height for age. This is consistent with estimates around 0.5 (or slightly greater in high population density contexts) found by Spears, How Much International Variation in Child Height Can San- itation Explain?; Lin et al., “Household Environmental Conditions Are Associated with Enteropathy and Impaired Growth in Rural Bangladesh”; and Kov et al., Growing Taller among Toilets: Evi- dence from Changes in Sanitation and Child Height in Cambodia.
20 S. R. Patil et al., “The Effect of India’s Total Sanitation Cam- paign on Defecation Behaviors and Child Health in Rural Madhya Pradesh: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial,” PLOS Medicine 11, no. 8 (2014).
21 Because the intervention caused a decline in open defecation of only 9 percent, these results suggest that the large confidence interval of an instrumental variables estimate of the effect of local open defecation on child height for age would include zero and estimates in the range of 0.5.
22 J. Hammer and D. Spears, Village Sanitation and Children’s Human Capital: Evidence from a Randomized Experiment by the Maha- rashtra Government, Policy Research Working Paper 6580 (Wash- ington, DC: World Bank, 2013).
23 L. Cameron et al., Impact Evaluation of a Large-Scale Rural Sani- tation Project in Indonesia, Policy Research Working Paper 6360 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2013).
24 A. D. Dangour et al., “The Effect of Interventions to Improve Water Quality and Supply, Provide Sanitation and Promote Hand- washing with Soap on Physical Growth in Children,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, accessed December 2, 2014,
www.thecochranelibrary.com/view/0/index.html.
25 D. Coffey et al., “Revealed Preference for Open Defecation: Evi- dence from a New Survey in Rural North India,” Economic and Political Weekly XLIX, no. 38 (2014): 43–55. See also S. Barnard et al., “Impact of Indian Total Sanitation Campaign on Latrine Coverage and Use: A Cross-Sectional Study in Orissa Three Years Following Programme Implementation,” PLOS ONE 8, no. 8 (2013): e71438.
26 Spears, How Much International Variation in Child Height Can San- itation Explain?; and Headey et al., The Other Asian Enigma.
CHAPTER 4
1 See 2014 International Year of Family Farming, “Family Farm- ing Knowledge Platform,” presented at the “Global Dialogue on Family Farming,”
www.fao.org/family-farming-2014/news/news/ details-press-room/en/c/262629/.
2 S. Lowder, J. Skoet, and S. Singh, What Do We Really Know about the Number and Distribution of Farms and Family Farms in the World? Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2014, ESA Working Paper 14-02 (Rome: Food and Agriculture Orga- nization of the United Nations (FAO), Agricultural Development Economics Division, 2014).
3 FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture 2014: Innovation in Family Farming (Rome, 2014).
4 Lowder, Skoet, and Singh, What Do We Really Know about the Number and Distribution of Farms and Family Farms in the World?
5 Ibid.
6 P. Sanchez, M. S. Swaminathan, P. Dobie, and N. Yuksel, Halving Hunger: It Can Be Done, United Nations Millennium Project Task Force on Hunger (London and Sterling, VA: Earthscan, 2005).
7 FAO, “Factsheet: Smallholders and Family Farmers” (Rome, 2012).
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