8 FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture 2014: Innovation in Family Farming. According to a sample of seven countries (Bangladesh, Bolivia, Kenya, Nepal, Nicaragua, United Republic of Tanzania, and Vietnam), 75 percent of the smallest family farms account for the larger share of food production by households.


9 FAO, “Factsheet: Smallholders and Family Farmers.”


10 A large body of empirical evidence points to a strong inverse rela- tionship between farm size and land productivity. For traditional explanations and the literature cited there, see C. Barrett, M. Bel- lemare, and J. Hou, “Reconsidering Conventional Explanations of the Inverse Productivity-Size Relationship,” World Development 38, no. 1 (2010): 88–97.


11 FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture 2014: Innovation in Family Farming; D. Larson, K. Otsuka, T. Matsumoto, and T. Kilic, Should African Rural Development Strategies Depend on Smallholder Farms? An Exploration of the Inverse Productivity Hypothesis, Pol- icy Research Paper 6190 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2012).


12 P. Karfakis, G. Ponzini, and G. Rapsomanikis, On the Costs of Being Small: Evidence from Kenyan Family Farms, ESA Working Paper 14–11 (Rome: FAO, 2014).


13 S. Fan and C. Chan-Kang, “Is Small Beautiful? Farm Size, Productiv- ity, and Poverty in Asian Agriculture,” Agricultural Economics 32, s1 (2005): 135–146; World Bank, World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development, (Washington, DC, 2007).


14 S. Fan, J. Brzeska, M. Keyzer, and A. Halsema, From Subsistence to Profit: Transforming Smallholder Farms, Food Policy Report 26 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 2013).


15 FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11—Women in Agri- culture: Closing the Gender Gap for Development (Rome, 2011).


16 K. Brooks, S. Zorya, and A. Gautam, “Employment in Agriculture: Jobs for Africa’s Youth,” in 2012 Global Food Policy Report (Wash- ington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 2013).


17 R. Eastwood, M. Lipton, and A. Newell, “Farm Size,” in Hand- book of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 4, edited by P. Pingali and R. Evenson (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2009); and G. Thapa and R. Gaiha, “Smallholder Farming in Asia and the Pacific: Challenges and Opportunities,” paper presented at the International Fund for Agricultural Development Conference on “New Directions for Smallholder Agriculture,” Rome, January 24–25, 2011.


18 W. Masters, A. Andersson Djurfeldt, C. De Haan, P. Hazell, T. Jayne, M. Jirstrom, and T. Reardon, “Urbanization and Farm Size in Asia and Africa: Implications for Food Security and Agricultural Research,” Global Food Security 2 (2013): 156–165; and K. Otsuka and F. Place, Changes in Land Tenure and Agricultural Intensifica- tion in Sub-Saharan Africa, WIDER Working Paper 051 (Helsinki: United Nations University, World Institute for Development Eco- nomics Research, 2014).


19 M. Muyanga and T. S. Jayne, “Effects of Rising Rural Population Density on Smallholder Agriculture in Kenya,” Food Policy 48 (2014): 98–113.


20 P. Drechsel, L. Gyiele, D. Kunze, and O. Cofie, “Population Density, Soil Nutrient Depletion, and Economic Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Ecological Economics 38, no. 2 (2001): 251–258.


118 NOTES


21 J. Kuwornu, I. Ohene-Ntow, and S. Asuming-Brempong, “Agricul- tural Credit Allocation and Constraint: Analyses of Selected Maize Farmers in Ghana,” British Journal of Economics, Management & Trade 2, no. 4 (2012): 353–374.


22 A. Demirguc-Kunt and L. Klapper, Measuring Financial Inclusion: The Global Findex Database, Policy Research Working Paper 6025 (Washington DC: World Bank, 2012).


23 L. Zseleczky and S. Yosef, “Are Shocks Really Increasing? A Selec- tive Review of the Global Frequency, Severity, Scope, and Impact of Five Types of Shocks,” Conference Paper 5, 2020 Resilience, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, May 15–17, 2014.


24 World Bank, “Turn Down the Heat: Climate Extremes, Regional Impacts, and the Case for Resilience,” A report for the World Bank by the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Climate Analytics (Washington, DC, 2013).


25 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Geneva, 2007).


26 K. Pauw, J. Thurlow, and D. van Seventer, Droughts and Floods in Malawi: Assessing the Economywide Effects, IFPRI Discussion Paper 962 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 2010).


27 C. Harvey, Z. Rakotobe, N. Rao, R. Dave, H. Razafimahatratra, R. Rabarijohn, H. Rajaofara, and J. MacKinnon, “Extreme Vulner- ability of Smallholder Farmers to Agricultural Risks and Climate Change in Madagascar,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 369, no. 1639 (2014): 20130089.


28 G. Anríquez, S. Daidone, and E. Mane, “Rising Food Prices and Undernourishment: A Cross-country Inquiry,” Food Policy 38 (2013): 190–202.


29 P. Karfakis, J. Velazco, E. Moreno, and K. Covarrubias, Impact of Increasing Prices of Agricultural Commodities on Poverty, ESA Working Paper 11–14 (Rome: FAO, Agricultural Development Eco- nomics Division, 2011). While higher food prices increase poverty in developing countries in the short run, a more long-term outlook suggests that recent global food price increases have significantly accelerated the rate of global poverty reduction—due to the high dependence of poor people on agriculture as a source of income and the strong response of rural wages to long-term changes in food prices. See D. Headey, Food Prices and Poverty Reduction in the Long Run, IFPRI Discussion Paper no. 1331 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 2014).


30 R. Hernandez and T. Reardon, “Tomato Farmers and Modern Mar- kets in Nicaragua: A Duration Analysis,” selected paper prepared for presentation at the 2012 Agricultural & Applied Economics Association’s Annual Meeting, Seattle, Washington, August 12–14; and E. Rao and M. Qaim, “Supermarkets, Farm Household Income, and Poverty: Insights from Kenya,” World Development 39 (2011): 784–796.


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