Chapter 2: State and Trends


the National Forestry Commission (CONAFOR) launched two initiatives: in 2003 the Hydrological Environmental Services Program (PSAH, in Spanish) and the Environmental Services Program for Carbon Sequestration, Biodiversity Conservation and Agroforestry Systems (PSA-CABSA, in Spanish) in 2004. Between 2003 and 2011 CONAFOR paid some USD 450 million to protect 26 000 square kilometres (Alix-Garcia and Wolff 2014), about 5 per cent of Mexico´s forested area (Figure 2.5.18). Although PES objectives related to conservation and poverty alleviation have been discussed, in the Mexican case they seem to achieve both objectives (Alix-Garcia and Wolff 2014). The Mexican case study has highlighted how PES can help to address both conservation issues and poverty alleviation simultaneously (Alix-Garcia and Wolff 2014). Another interesting example national level is that of Peru, which in June 2014 approved the Law 30215 on ecosystem services; this Law regulates the retribution to ecosystem services arising from voluntary agreements in order to contribute to the conservation, recovery and sustainable use of ecosystems.


Figure 2.5.18: Areas of Payment for Ecosystem Services Programmes in Mexico, 2004-2009.


REDD+ is an example of a PES scheme based on payments for conservation and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. It seeks to support developing countries in reducing GHG emissions and enhancing forest carbon sinks as a key mitigation strategy. However, some obstacles have been identified for its implementation in LAC: lack of specific and adequate financial resources; strength of macroeconomic and sectoral policies; lack of inter-sectoral support for socio-economic development; lack of clarity on issues such as carbon ownership, land and benefit distribution; lack of representativeness of forest managers, especially in indigenous communities and in areas of decision and management; and lack of capacities (Sanhueza and Antonissen 2014). Notwithstanding, there are also some other remarkable examples of successful national and sub- regional initiatives mechanisms implemented in LAC such as the Amazon Fund and the Brazilian Rural and Environmental Registry (CAR). The Amazon Fund is the largest dedicated fund supporting efforts to reduce emissions from deforestation and degradation in the Amazon, the world’s largest tropical forest with invaluable biodiversity. The purpose of the Amazon Fund is to provide an incentive for Brazil and other tropical-forested developing countries to continue and increase voluntary reductions of GHG emission from forest deforestation and degradation, as proposed by the Brazilian delegation to the 12th Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Nairobi, Kenya, 2006. The Fund has demonstrated that developing country institutions can meet high standards of fiduciary governance and operational transparency (Forstater et al. 2013).


Source: Alix-Garcia and Wolff 2014


Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) promotes the management of forests using techniques that maintain biodiversity, productivity, regeneration capacity and ecosystem services. Although SFM has already been implemented in several LAC countries, some evidence suggests controversial effects on biodiversity. For example, in the Brazilian Amazon, low-impact logging seems to have important effects on mammals and reptiles (Azevedo- Ramos et al. 2006). In contrast, moderate negative effects on


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