Landscapes


Secondary Economic Activities: Manufacturing Physical factors


• Weight-losing raw materials attract manufacturing industry to locate close by


• Coal deposits (Orissa, NE) – growth of iron, steel, fertiliser industries nearby


• Iron ore deposits – iron and steel manufacturing (TATA, Jamshedpur)


• Copper deposits (Khetri, Rajasthan) – engineering industries • Sugar cane – production plants (Maharashtra) • Cotton mills – close to textile manufacturing market (Mumbai)


• Jute (grown in West Bengal) supplies mills in Kolkata • Hydroelectric power (Hirakud Dam, Orrisa) supplies electrometallurgical industries


Socio-economic factors: labour


• Huge labour pool – 1.2 bn • Urban industrial concentrations – Mumbai, Kolkata • Low labour costs, skilled English-speaking workers – attractive to foreign multinationals (Mitsubishi)


• Third-level education, science centres – skilled workforce – aeronautics and IT industries


• Pharmaceutical production centres (Mumbai, Chennai) • Restrictive labour laws reduce competition


Socio-economic factors: infrastructure


• Transport infrastructure vital for reliable and low-cost distribution of raw materials


• Upland: poor transport – cottage-type production (Himalayas)


• Lowland: rapid transport networks good for perishable materials – food processing on Ganges Plain


• Ports: Kolkata, Mumbai, Madras: major manufacturing and export centres


• Railways: transport of bulky manufactured goods (iron, steel) • Roads: Golden Quadrilateral links main cities; HGVs – possible for industries to locate in smaller urban centres


Socio-economic factors: markets


• Population 1.2 bn – huge market potential • Rural areas: local markets, small industries • Multinational plants – seek access to market • Urban centres (Delhi, Mumbai) – large consumer industries (Nestle, Coca-Cola)


• Increasing affluence – bigger demand for cars and technology


• ASEAN India Free Trade area – access to Asian markets • Exports to EU – €44 bn


Socio-economic factors: government


• Many state-owned enterprises – inefficient, non-profitable • Industrial parks; 200 Special Economic Zones • Plans for industrial corridors to attract international industry


• Foreign direct investment since 1991 – large multinationals • Make in India campaign 2014 – simplify business


Challenges facing manufacturing


• Demand for energy from manufacturing and domestic usage outstrips supply


• Power outages 386


Tertiary Economic Activities: Tourism Physical factors


• Accessibility: good access – 50 national, 12 international airports – railway system provides links


• Climate: variety: snow-capped Himalayas, sandy Thar Desert, Assam tropical rainforests


• Landscapes: trekking in Himalayas, stay with local family – eco-tourism – employment for remote areas, funding for natural habitats, greater awareness of environmental issues


Socio-economic factors


• Historical sites (Taj Mahal, Agra) • Cultural interest – Buddhist, Hindu religions, Varanasi spiritual capital


• Wellness tourism – ashrams • Medical tourism: lower-cost medical procedures


Government


• Indian Tourism Development Corporation – Incredible India campaign


Challenges facing tourism


• Street beggars – rotting rubbish – traffic congestion, noise and air pollution


Tertiary Economic Activities: Transport Historical factors


• 1850–1947: British colony – Britain built three main ports (Bombay, Calcutta, Madras) as export and import points and railways to carry raw materials


Physical factors: relief


• Gentle relief of Ganges Plain – railway lines • Steep slopes and valleys in Himalayas limit rail construction • Deltas of Ganges, Brahmaputra – less railways • Steep gradients of mountains limit road network and building protection increases cost


• Landslides – road blockages, disruption, costly repairs Physical factors: climate


• Monsoon flooding – rural roads unusable, railways disrupted, landslides block roads


• Desert climate, Rajasthan – low population, poor railway network, little investment


Socio-economic factors


• Commuter transport systems – access to commercial centres


• Indian rail network employs 1.5 mn – support formal and informal economies


• Heavy urban road traffic – congestion, air and noise pollution


• Land for new roads – displacement of people in slums • Planned upgrade of airports


Political factors


• Public Private Partnership (PPP) schemes finance transport projects, e.g. high-speed rail between Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata; upgrading of ports


Challenges facing transport


• Major capital investment needed • Upgrades will result in job losses – economic impacts • Improved information systems needed


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