SEM-EDX in Ancient Human Dental Calculus 1211
Figure 8. The sample of the dental calculus from Majetín (No. 801). Bar=500 μm. a: SEM image. b: EDX lead map from the rectangular highlighted in (a). The arrow shows the sample. c: EDX carbon map.
Figure 9. LEEM (landing energy 250 eV) image of dental calculus from Majetín (No. 801). Bar=500 nm.
contributes to our hypothesis too. The reason is that sulfur is a compound of gunpowder and lead is used in the manu- facture of bullets. The EDX spectrum was obtained from the burial ground, and it was confirmed that no lead or sulfur were present in it. Thus, these elements could not come from the burial environment Figure 7. The iron seems to be burial contamination (Figs. 6 and 7). To evaluate our results, using EDX on a nonmodified
dental calculus sample, we performed the EDX mapping on a sample embedded in an epoxy block, thereby the EDX results mentioned above were confirmed (Figs. 8a, 8b). The EDX mapping gave us extra information about sulfur/lead depositing during the calculus formation. Figures 8a and 8b show the equal distribution of sulfur/lead. Thus, the hypothesis arises that the soldier was using his teeth for opening paper cartridges during all the time the dental cal- culus was formed. The dental calculus could be from 2 weeks to several years old (Mutschelknauss, 2002). It is in agree- ment with significant traces of the trauma of all the incisors.
In areas of lower concentration of lead/sulfur, higher amount of carbon is recognizable (Fig. 8c); these can be places of accumulation of organic material (bacteria, fibers, etc.). Before the coating (for the EDX mapping), the sample was analyzed by LEEM to display a detailed texture (Müllerová& Lenc, 1992) of the calculus (Fig. 9) in high magnification with landing energy 250 eV. Figure 9 suggests that the grain size of dental calculus crystals could be in the range of nanometers, which is similar to vascular calcified plaques (Curtze et al., 2016) where the EDX mapping was done with different techniques, including EBSD analysis. In this article (Curtze et al., 2016), the grain size in bone appears larger than in vascular calcified plaque, as well as fossil coralline skeletons (Cusacks et al., 2008) or fossil eggs (Grellet-Tinner et al., 2011) or shells (Pérez-Huerta & Cusacks, 2009).
CONCLUSIONS
Three samples of ancient human dental calculus from chosen individuals were studied in this study in order to verify hypotheses of life and burial habits by using SEM-EDX. Elemental spectra (Fig. 4) of the first sample (from the man dated to the 9th century AD) showed an unusual presence of magnesium, aluminum, and silicon, which contributes to confirmation of the hypothesis of a high degree of dental abrasion caused by particles from grinding stones in flour. Elemental spectra (Fig. 5) of the second sample (from the man from the 9th century AD with no goods according to archeological records but with green coloring of teeth) showed copper in dental calculus. This confirms the hypothesis that bronze jewelery could have lain near the buried body. Elemental spectra (Fig. 6) of the third sample (fromthe man without any grave goods fromMajetín) showed the presence of lead, iron, and copper. This confirms that damage to the teeth was caused by the systematic
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