feature / Aki Kaji / Montrachet from gene-edited Chardonnay? T
he dominant motivation for genetic exploration is to cope with possible food crises caused by climate change and population explosion. As is evident from the lack of public awareness, however, the research is led by governments and scientific institutions, and the public is not yet very involved in its direction and regulation. Even if you have heard of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), you may not have heard of gene-edited crops. According to the European Food Information Council, genetic modification is typically the transfer of a gene from one species to another, while gene editing is typically the use of very precise genetic engineering techniques to alter genes between the same species. In general, GMO cannot happen in nature, but gene editing can. Although the legislation is still being formulated, some gene-edited crops are being treated as equivalent to those produced by conventional breeding and improvement techniques. There is therefore no obligation to label them as GMO, and they can be freely marketed. Some may be shocked to learn that we are already at that stage. But it is important to know. And you can then develop your own response. Here I first explain what a gene is and give a brief overview of genetic-engineering history. I then discuss the differences between different genetic techniques and the characteristics of the vines produced from each of them. Some may be surprised, one way or another, by recent developments in genetic engineering. Perhaps some of those who are anxious about it, or strongly opposed to it, may change their boundaries and accept it more or less fully in some circumstances. Even those who are broadly in favor of genetic engineering may draw their own boundaries regarding desirable or safe limits. I then go on to explore the impact of genetic engineering on the wine world. I consider the subject from a mostly European perspective. But as one researcher has advised, it is necessary to have perspectives from different countries, since they can all influence each other. Future competition for markets, or the success of one country in genetic engineering, or the need for genetic engineering in world affairs, could change the course of events significantly. Genetic engineering may be a bit like Bacchus—a bringer of joy and a destroyer of lives. We need to try to control it.
What are genes?
The bodies of plants and other life forms are composed of cells. The adult human body comprises some 37 trillion cells, all of which are the result of division from a single fertilized egg. Cell division follows a blueprint, and that blueprint is the genes in the nucleus of the cell. According to the genes, appropriate proteins are produced, and organs such as the heart are created. Traits are determined at the genetic level. A certain race is less tolerant of alcohol, for example; only women can bear a child. But if genes can be changed, it is possible to give an organism desired traits. The most recent development in this field is gene editing, which is already being practiced on vines. Genes, like computers, are digitally designed. Computers use the symbols 0 and 1, which cannot be broken. But genetic data or genome information comprises four substances, which can be broken physically or chemically. A book may afford a helpful analogy. It transmits information by means of paper and ink. So, if it is burned or torn, the information may become unreadable. The same is true for human genes. For example, exposure to radiation or ultraviolet rays may damage genes, making them
130 | THE WORLD OF FINE WINE | ISSUE 87 | 2025
unreadable. Fortunately, living organisms have mechanisms to repair damaged genes, because such damage occurs routinely. On rare occasions, a failure to repair (mutation) may even result in advantages for an organism. Mutation is, in fact, essential to adapt to various environmental changes on Earth. More often than not, however, life is threatened by altered genetic information—as in the case of cancer—so genes attempt to repair themselves.
Genetic engineering
Crop breeding and improvement is achieved by creating desirable genetic change or mutation. Simple gene change has been practiced since time immemorial. Hybridization (crossbreeding) is one such method, in which different species or varieties are crossed to obtain seeds. The seeds are sown, and among the crops, humans select those with beneficial traits. Disease-resistant PiWi grape varieties have been increasingly discussed in recent years, and they are also the result of artificial hybridization. Other methods involve chemicals or radiation. Irradiation damages genes and mutation can occur. Gold 20th Century is a famous rice variety from Tottori, Japan, in which a mutation has been induced by gamma rays. Such genetic change requires, however, an enormous amount of effort and time. Tens of thousands of seeds must be sown, grown, observed, and selected for desirable traits. It takes decades for a new crop to become commercially viable. Valentin Blattner is a renowned Swiss vine breeder. He sows some 40,000 seeds a year to obtain only two or three commercial products. The white grape variety Pamina was hybridized at the University of Geisenheim in Germany in 1986 but not registered as an official German variety until 2021. And it is still in the final stages of commercialization. If the sequence of genes and the function of each gene could be known and changed, it would be possible to create new crops without expending nearly so much effort and time. In medicine, it would be possible to cure intractable diseases, such as cancer. In the pursuit of this idea, the world’s first genetically modified organism was created in the US in 1973. And in 1990, the Human Genome Project was launched there. It took 13 years to complete the analysis of the human genome. The sequence of genes was revealed, spurring the elucidation of the function of each gene. Despite that success, the analysis took an enormous amount of time, and the associated costs were huge. So, it seemed a pipe dream to analyze the genomes of other living organisms and to use them commercially.
The breakthrough was made in 2005, when the next-
generation sequencer was released by 454 Life Sciences Inc. The sequencer can complete the analysis of the human genome in a few days. And it costs less than $1,000. This has made it possible to analyze genes at the individual level. In the case of crops, it is now possible to know whether a variety has desirable genes or not after crossbreeding or hybridization. The selection process, which would otherwise have taken a few decades, has been greatly shortened. Furthermore, in 2012, a technology called CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing was developed. CRISPR enables pinpoint gene editing based on genome information. The CRISPR technique has advantages over previous techniques in that it is inexpensive and easy to use. The developers, Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna, were awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 2020. In 2021, the world’s first CRISPR gene-edited crop was
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