888 M. I. Mahmoud et al.


FIG. 4 Spatially explicit drivers of deforestation overlain on a 2017 land-cover map (as base layer) in the 13,845 km2 study area encompassing Ebo Forest and Mount Nlonako, Cameroon (Fig. 1). For detailed views of panels A–E, see Supplementary Figs 4–7.


Implications for conservation


Deforestation of natural forests and the conversion of forested land for smallholder agricultural practices in the Littoral Region of Cameroon have numerous negative implications for regional biodiversity and wildlife conserva- tion, ecosystem functioning, environmental sustainabil- ity and livelihoods. Regarding biodiversity and wildlife, multiple anthropogenic influences are threatening forests, with many direct impacts, depending upon the extent and type of forest altered. For instance, the observed deforesta- tion and the replacement of natural forest with oil palm plantations is likely to result in severe biodiversity loss (Fitzherbert et al., 2008; Azhar et al., 2014). In South-east Asia forest conversion to oil palm cultivation has had severe negative effects on biodiversity across a wide range of taxa, including birds, invertebrates and mammals (Peh et al., 2006; Koh & Wilcove, 2008; Vargas et al., 2015; Yue et al., 2015). Hence, our findings forewarn of potential loss of biodiversity and wildlife habitat in the Littoral Region as a result of deforestation for oil palm cultivation. With the current trajectory of land-cover change,we infer


that functioning of forested ecosystems in the Littoral Region is under threat as a result of the landscape-level loss of forest cover, which can alter biogeochemical cycles and induce climate change. Moreover, degradation of eco- system functioning in the forests of the Littoral Region is ex- pected to continue as anthropogenic land use gradually encroaches on areas once occupied by natural forest (Gérard et al., 2017; Nicholas et al., 2018). There are likely to be other cascading implications of forest land-cover change, including soil degradation, in the Littoral Region. Removal of natural forest cover exposes soils, which results in potentially irreversible soil erosion, degradation and threats to soil biota (Danielsen et al., 2009; Beca et al.,


2017). Deforestation processes therefore pose substantial risks to the integrity and long-term sustainability of forests through numerous mechanisms. Outright conversion and loss of natural tropical forest


increases net greenhouse gas emissions (Houghton & Nassikas, 2017), contributing to human-induced climate change. The ongoing conversion of the forests in the Littoral Region, which is occurring at a landscape level, will therefore contribute to greenhouse gas emissions in Cameroon and global human-induced climate change. Long-term human well-being in the Littoral Region is


also threatened by the loss of natural forest cover. The for- ests in the Littoral Region harbour numerous medicinally useful species, which are used by local people and are in de- mand from global pharmaceutical companies (Colfer, 2012; Watson et al., 2018). The potential extinction of these medi- cinal plants as a result of deforestation in the Littoral Region has significant implications for the local populace, and legislative protection of the forests is needed to avoid this scenario. Otherwise, if the expansion of oil palm cultivation, mining, logging, land clearing and hunting towards the boundary of Ebo Forest is not halted, the combined effects will deny people medicinal support, decrease the quality of life in the region, and have significant socio-economic impacts.


Conclusions


Land-cover conversion is an insidious and increasing threat to the forests and biodiversity in the Littoral Region of Cameroon. Significant deforestation has occurred in the study region, reducing natural forest cover from 74.2%in 1975 to 62.3%in 2017. This forest loss occurred predomi- nantly within 5 km of major roads, and is now occurring


Oryx, 2020, 54(6), 882–891 © 2019 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605318000881


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