ments. The Hmong do not respect women less, but believe that one person should have the power to decide. Today, more and more mothers are becoming leaders in their community and making decisions, too. In younger families, both the father and mother make decisions. Hmong mothers nurture and take care of the children, and are respon- sible for the household. Although men usually make the healthcare decisions, they will ask the mother for advice because the mother often knows more about their children’s conditions. Also, the mother will often be the one to talk with the healthcare provider.


Every child born is seen as a reincarnated soul in the Hmong people. After waiting until the infant has lived for three days, a Shaman evokes the soul to be reincarnated in the baby’s body. At this time, the baby is also given a name. After identifying the baby by that name, the Shaman will call upon the ancestor to join the living, blessing and protecting the baby. Then the baby is given a silver necklace or a cloth necklace to keep the newly reincarnated soul from wandering around. Because this is an old tradition, Hmong people who are trying to adjust to the modern world may no longer follow it, but most still do.


After delivery, the mother has to stay in her house for 30 days. She eats special food, usually rice and fresh chicken, and drinks only hot liquids. She can only visit members of the same clan or her husband’s relatives. A woman in the postpartum period is con- sidered unclean and so is unwelcome among other clans. This is because of the Hmong belief in the spirit world—the Hmong themselves may not care about this, but the spirit world would be unhappy if a new mother made visits in the 30 days after giving birth: It might cause bad luck for the family or the woman.


Hmong families are “child-centered” places where small children are regarded as trea- sures. Sons are valued more than daughters because they carry on the family name. The eldest son has a duty to perform the ancestor worship in the home. Gender segregation is common in social interactions. Parents are expected to exercise a high degree of con- trol over their children and their future, as well. This may be in conflict with American beliefs about personal freedom, and Hmong teen runaways have been a major problem among Hmong and Southeast Asia refugee groups.


Other health practices. Traditional Hmong methods for healing are not only based on shamanism, but include use of ritual health practices and herbal medicine. Acupuncture and acupressure may also be used. Shamanistic health practices stem from the belief that illness is essentially spiritual in nature. The chief cause of illness is believed to be the loss of one’s spirit or soul; illness can also result from natural causes. Fear, loneliness, separa- tion from loved ones, and other emotional stresses can rip the soul away from the body.


For a less serious illness, parents or other family members may perform rituals needed, e.g., if a baby cries in the night, an adult family member may go to the door and swing a burning stick back and forth to light the way for the baby’s soul to return. The “Soul- caller,” who could be a family elder or a shaman, is one of the most important roles of traditional Hmong healthcare experts.


Hmong have specific healing practices that have been misunderstood and misdiagnosed in western cultures as child or spousal abuse. These include the following:


• Cupping: Cotton or tissue is burned in a small glass jar. After the flame is out, the jar is placed over the painful area and remains until the air within the jar has cooled, producing a vacuum and a round ecchymotic area. The purpose of cupping is to


40 VOICES FROM THE COMMUNITY: CROSS CULTURAL EXPRESSIONS OF GRIEF AT THE LOSS OF AN INFANT


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