world is also believed to be inhabited by a wide variety of spirits, many of which can influence the course of human life. These include house spirits, spirits residing in doors or other inanimate objects, spirits in nature as well as evil spirits. If someone offends one of the spirits, it can place a curse on the person, causing illness and even death.
In fact, U.S. medical and social scientists have describe an “ethno-medical pathogenesis” in which hundreds of Hmong men have died from a cause known as sudden unexpected nocturnal death syndrome (SUND). The Hmong believe an evil pressing spirit (dab tsong) comes for them in the night and paralyzes them, leading to death. Scientists say the power of the Hmong belief in the evil spirit is so strong, it may cause overwhelming fear and stress that actually leads to death.
To counteract evil or unhappy spirits, the Shaman acts as a mediator between the visible world and an invisible spirit world, and practices spiritual diagnosis and healing. Because ordinary humans cannot see the spirit world, Hmong use the Shaman to connect the real world to the supernatural. Common causes of illnesses that the shaman treats are 1) the soul wandering from the body, lost because of injury, a loud noise, being unconscious (includ- ing anesthesia), or feeling depressed, which may be cured by a soul calling ceremony; or 2) hostile spirits, spells or violation of taboos, which may be cured by an animal sacrifice.
The Hmong do believe in the sacrifice of animals, including chickens, pigs, or cows, to the spirits. The purpose of sacrifice is to protect a person from further harm or to have the animal’s spirit take the place of sick person’s spirit. Blood from the animal or amulets with parts of the animal (teeth, claws) may be attached to the person’s clothing and should not be removed. Many Hmong are Christians and it is difficult to balance a modern world with traditional beliefs in the spirits.
Traditional Hmong belief holds that a person has several souls, usually three or four. When a person dies, one soul goes to heaven, one stays with the body, and one is rein- carnated. Sometimes one of the souls becomes separated from the person and needs to be recalled with a spirit calling ceremony. The Hmong believe that when a man dies he is reborn as a woman and when a woman dies she is reborn as a man, if she fulfilled her childbearing destiny in the lifetime.
The souls of the dead live in the world of the supernatural. These spirits decide just how long a person will live on earth. When that time runs out, the person will die. These same spirits are also the souls of the Hmong people still waiting to be born. Someday these souls will reenter the earth in a new body.
Members of the same clan are not allowed to marry. Men and women with different last names may marry, even if they are first cousins. Young people meet potential mates at the New Year’s festival. Men generally marry between ages 18–30 years. Women often marry between 14–18 years. Hmong Americans believe women should not marry until 18 years of age. Negotiations to arrange a marriage are common among Hmong Americans. The husband is considered the head of household and makes the decision in consultation with clan elders. Women wield a great deal of power in the family since they are seen as having primary responsibility for the household. As chief care-givers for children, they can be extremely influential in their communities.
In the Hmong culture, the husband is the head of household and, traditionally, he is the one who makes decisions and is responsible for performing family religious require-
VOICES FROM THE COMMUNITY: CROSS CULTURAL EXPRESSIONS OF GRIEF AT THE LOSS OF AN INFANT 39
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