While in the refugee camps, the Hmong began to learn the ways of an industrial soci- ety and new languages. The reality of living in the United States caused the Hmong to retain some and leave other traditions. The Hmong Americans generally have a posi- tive view of their new country, and the younger generation tend to understand both cultures. About 40 percent of the Hmong in the United States were born here. The proportion of Hmong with personal memories of Laos is decreasing rapidly. Many have converted to Christianity and Hmong customs may not be practiced by this group.


Today, traditions among Hmong vary. For example, language is a great barrier to the elderly, many of whom could not read or write prior to coming to the United States. The handshake is a new concept to traditional Hmong, especially for women. Traditional Hmong usually do not shake hands; greeting is done verbally. Many Hmong women feel embarrassed shaking hands with a male or if the hand is held too tightly. (See Table 1 for more general etiquette for interacting with Hmong.)


Tribes, language, clans, and social structure. Within the Hmong population there are various tribes or subgroups such as the White Hmong, Black Hmong, Flowery Hmong, Red Hmong, Blue or Green Hmong, and Striped Hmong. According to Hmong legend, these tribes were developed by ancient Chinese conquerors who forced the Hmong to divide into different groups and to identify themselves by wearing dis- tinctively colored clothes.


The language is called Hmoob (Hmong in English). It has many dialects. This language is tonal and related to the Sino-Tibetan language family. There are many dialects, including the Striped Hmong, Green or Blue Hmong, and White Hmong. The dialects are mutual- ly intelligible but differ considerably. The Hmong language, folktales, and traditions were passed down through generations by word of mouth for thousands of years. The Hmong language was not written down until the late 20th century. However, many Hmong still cannot read or write in their native language. Most Hmong in the United States speak White or Green Hmong. Older Hmong sometimes communicate by using metaphors. It is important to validate the information and ask if the information is understood.


Hmong people are organized into clans. There are 18 clans, differentiated by family name. These names include Cha/Chang, Cheng, Chue/Chu, Fang, Hang, Her/Heu, Khang, Kong, Kue, Lee/Ly/Louie, Lor/Lo/Lao, Moua, Pha, Thao/Thor/Thoj, Vang, Vu/Vue, Xiong, and Yang. Some of these are very popular and some are not, but when you hear one of these family names, you know the person might be Hmong. Clans are determined by ancestral lineage and the traditional ceremonies they practice. Families in the same clan have the same ancestor and practice the same ceremonies to remember their ances- tors. Clan leaders play an important role in the Hmong community. Decision-making is a collaboration between the head of household and the clan leaders. Clan leaders help the family when there is a problem, such as illness or death. When there is a death, the family feels lost, numb—they don’t know what to do. The clan leader will help to plan and organize the funeral, so it’s not so overwhelming for the family. Many clan elders are gradually being replaced by younger leaders who are well-educated and fluent in English.


Religion, marriage, family, and children. The traditional Hmong religion consists of ancestor worship and animism, both beliefs that the spiritual world co-exists with the physical world. Hmong believe the spirits of the ancestors continue to influence the daily lives and welfare of their descendants, who in return continue to offer foods and observe the proper rituals to ensure the ancestors are remembered and worshipped. The spiritual


38 VOICES FROM THE COMMUNITY: CROSS CULTURAL EXPRESSIONS OF GRIEF AT THE LOSS OF AN INFANT


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