State and Trends
2.1.3 Pressures
Transboundary smoke-haze pollution caused by improper land-use practice
Transboundary smoke-haze events in Southeast Asia, caused mainly by extensive vegetation clearing, such as the uncontrolled biomass and peat burning in Borneo, Sumatra and Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam, are of major concern both regionally and globally due to their wide-ranging economic, climatic, ecological and public health effects (Pentamwa and Kim Oanh 2008; Heil and Goldammer 2001). The 1997–1998 wildfires in Indonesia, for example, resulted in economic losses of more than USD9 billion, of which almost USD150 million was for additional health costs, while losses in tourism amounted to more than USD100 million (Bappenas 1999). The region’s economic cost during the latest Southeast Asian wildfires in 2015, another El Niño year, was estimated to exceed USD16 billion (World Bank 2015).
Overuse of water contributing to desertification and leading to sandstorms
Dust storms are a recurring phenomenon in Northeast (Northern China, Korea. Mongolia) and South Asia (Iran). Such storms are a particular problem in the eastern provinces of Iran, which are most affected by water shortages and frequent droughts (Rashki et al. 2015).
Northeast Asian dust events normally occur in spring (March through May). Most particles of Asian dust are in the respirable range of particulate matter, up to 10 micrometres in size (PM10
Improper waste disposal, leading to open burning and landfill fires
Uncontrolled dumping is still the main waste disposal method in the region (Section 2.6). A study in 2010 by the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute in India found that, in Mumbai, about 2 per cent of total municipal solid waste generated is openly burned on the streets, while 10 per cent is deliberately burnt in landfills, or ignited by landfill fires. These contribute not only to the atmospheric release of particulate matter, including black carbon, but also dioxins and furans which are considered persistent organic pollutants (POPs) with carcinogenic effects (NSWAI 2015).
2.1.4 State
Short-lived climate pollutants The World Health Organization (WHO) (2015) highlighted the urgent need to reduce emissions of black carbon, ozone and methane, the SLCPs that globally contribute to the more than 7 million premature deaths annually, while for the low- and middle-income countries in Western Pacific 102 deaths, and for Southeast Asia 51 deaths per 100,000 people were attributable to air pollution (WHO 2012). Traditional brick kilns and coke ovens are identified as the major sources, particularly in Asia, associated with adverse respiratory symptoms in Kathmandu, Nepal (Joshi and Dudani 2008), and, in Dhaka, Bangladesh, responsible for about 750 premature deaths each year (World Bank 2011).
Indoor air quality ), and consist of soil or mineral particles coming
mainly from severe dust storms in arid and semi-arid regions. A system to predict dust events is being developed in China, the Republic of Korea, Japan and other countries under the framework of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO 2016)
Epidemiological studies of lung cancer in people who have never smoked have shown that the incidence of lung cancer in women in Asia is particularly high (Bruce et al. 2015). The impact of particulate matter on human health is attributed to exposure to environmental tobacco smoke, combustion products from indoor heating and cooking fuel, and cooking- oil fumes (Lan et al. 2012).
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