State and Trends
Secondary materials such as ferrous and non-ferrous metals, paper and plastics are also recycled to a high level in the region, with China playing an important role. China accounts for 60 per cent by weight of global imports of aluminium scrap, 70 per cent of globally recovered paper and around 56 per cent of global plastic scrap (UNEP and ISWA 2015).
E-waste contains gold, copper, lead, cadmium, mercury and plastics, which are usually recovered to reduce the extraction of virgin materials. Around 84 per cent of e-waste collected globally is recycled, and the intrinsic material value of global e-waste was worth around USD60 billion in 2014 (Balde et al. 2015). E-waste recycling is also a very common in many Asia and the Pacific countries, including China, India and Viet Nam.
A number of countries in Asia and the Pacific have introduced the extended producer responsibility mechanisms and thus promote recycling , which is usually being implemented by industries in more developed countries. In most of developing countries, however, recyclables are usually collected by waste-pickers, transferred to household-scale recycling facilities where environmentally sound management usually is either absent or practised on a limited basis, and informal and unsafe recovery and recycling methods are commonplace.
The highest recycling rates of construction and demolition waste are in high-income countries, where they can be as high as 99 per cent, for instance in Japan and New Zealand, while they are relatively low in China (5 per cent in 2013) and moderate in India (50 per cent in 2014) due to concerns over quality, lax enforcement and ambiguous regulations (UNEP and ISWA 2015).
Uncontrolled dumping is still the main waste disposal method across Asia and the Pacific’s developing countries. Investment in waste-to-energy technologies has been emerging.
Uncontrolled landfilling and open burning have been the most prevalent waste disposal method in the Asia and the Pacific region (Figure 2.6.6). While controlled waste disposal rates
can reach 95–100 per cent in upper-middle and high-income countries, it is often below 50 per cent in low-income ones, and no controls on disposal is still relatively common in rural areas (UNEP and ISWA 2015). With economic development, however, some countries such as Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines and Viet Nam, have gradually developed well- designed and operated sanitary landfills (UNEP and ISWA 2015)). Disposal presents a particular challenge for many small island developing states in the Pacific sub-region due to the limited availability of land. Many countries in the region now have been promoting 3R measures to increase the waste diversion from landfilling.
Waste incineration is capital intensive, requires skilled manpower for operation and maintenance and therefore is popular in more developed economies such as Australia, Japan, the Republic of Korea and Singapore. In some developing countries, this method is used mainly for hazardous waste disposal due to its high investment cost and stringent control of air emission.
With rising energy demand and the need to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, investment in waste-to-energy technologies, including incineration with energy recovery, biofuel and biogas, has now emerged in the region with investment in waste-to-energy in Japan, India and China accounting for 7, 5 and 4 per cent of the world investment in 2015 respectively (ISWA 2015). The electricity production output from renewable municipal waste in Asia Pacific has increased nearly 5 times, from 988 GWh in 1990 to 4 952 GWh in 2013 (Asia Pacific Energy Portal, 2016). It has been estimated that there were 765 energy-from-waste plants worldwide with capacity of 83 million tonnes of waste per year in 2014, of which 150 are from China (UNEPand ISWA 2015). In 2012, Thailand generated 193.40 megawatts of energy by biogas and in Viet Nam there were 130 000 installed household biogas units (Biogas Asia Pacific Forum, 2013). In addition, the use of suitable waste materials in manufacturing processes for energy and/or resource recovery, such as co-processing wastes in cement kilns, is practised in China, Malaysia and Viet Nam (Huang et al. 2012).
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