30 CHAPTER 3


believed there were errors of exclusion in their communities based on their perceptions of relative poverty and fairness (Adato and Roopnaraine 2004). Both proxy means and community-based methods are likely to involve errors of inclusion and exclusion and can generate social tensions between neigh- bors and individual stress, particularly when the criteria and processes are not transparent. These problems are compounded where there is no reliable appeals process (Adato 2000; Adato and Roopnaraine 2010b). Any externally implemented method needs a reliable process for appeals and complaints so that individual cases can be reviewed and errors caught (see, for example, Oportunidades 2006a). Community-based methods have also produced tensions, and are subject


to the elite-influence that the survey-based approaches have been successful at avoiding. Where strong systems of patronage exist, or the target group has little representation, a categorical approach might be better (DfID 2005). Community-based systems can be designed with built-in reviews that strengthen transparency and accountability. In practice, targeting methods are most often used in combination; for example, data-driven geographic targeting can be followed by a community-based process involving some kind of household- level data collection. In all of the methods described, there are risks of missing certain kinds of


households and individuals: remote households living in difficult terrain, migrants, child-headed households, or street children.2 Although community- based methods tend to be better at identifying some of these groups, they may still exclude others, such as people who self-exclude or face discrimina- tion by other community members due to race, ethnicity, caste, severe dis- ability, or other factors. Ways to reach these groups through eligibility crite- ria and targeting methods must be carefully designed into the process.


Targeting Poverty and Vulnerability or AIDS-Affected Families? Conceptual Dilemmas, Evidence, and Arguments A number of global initiatives and forums have coalesced around the issues facing orphans and other vulnerable children affected by HIV/AIDS. These include, among others, the United Nations General Assembly Special Session (UNGASS) Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS (2001), the US President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief’s Orphans and Other Vulnerable Children Cat- egory, the US Assistance for Orphans and Other Vulnerable Children in Devel- oping Countries Act of 2005, the Global Partners Forum on Children Affected


2Demographic and Health Survey data from 2000–04 in nine countries of Sub-Saharan Africa show that under 1 percent of households were headed by children (UNICEF 2006); still, these house- holds are likely to be among those most in need.


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