98 CHAPTER 6


ondary school enrollment impacts were higher: 13.9 percentage points in urban areas and 17.2 points in rural areas. Attendance increased by between 4.6 and 10.1 percentage points among children ages twelve through seven- teen in rural areas and by between 3.5 and 5.3 percentage points in urban areas (Attanasio and Gomez 2004). Ecuador’s Bono de Desarrollo program increased primary school enroll-


ment by 9.8–12.8 percentage points and reduced child labor by 15.4–20.7 points. The effect on sixth graders was an increase of 17.8 percentage points (Schady and Araujo 2006). The program did not include a secondary school transfer. The evaluation found no impact on achievement test scores (Ponce 2006). The evaluation of Honduras’s PRAF showed a huge increase of 17 percent-


age points in the probability that children ages five through twelve who were out of school in 2000 would enroll in or return to school in 2001, but this dropped to zero when comparing average rates using a double-difference approach. It may be a result of high levels of enrollment at baseline or of the fact that the control group also sent children to school, hoping to receive the cash transfer. However, the program did show robust impacts on atten- dance rates of approximately 4.4–4.5 percentage points and reduced dropout rates, from 7.0 to 2.4 percent (IFPRI 2003b). Jamaica’s Programme for Advancement through Health and Education (PATH)


focused on school attendance because enrollment was already very high in Jamaica, with an attendance increase of about 3 percent. No significant dif- ference was found in grade advancement or grades (Levy and Ohls 2007).


Asia: Cambodia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Turkey The highest impact of any CCT program was in Cambodia, where pre-program secondary school enrollment for girls was very low. Cambodia’s Scholarships for Girls Programme was found to have increased enrollment by 22–33 per- centage points and increased attendance by 43 percentage points (Filmer and Schady 2006). Bangladesh has experimented with three programs: the Bangladesh Pri-


mary Education Stipend Program, the Bangladesh Female Secondary School Assistance Project (FSSAP), and the Bangladesh Reaching Out of School Chil- dren Programme (ROSC). At the baseline for evaluations of the first two pro- grams, girls’ attendance rates were very low, 65 percent and 42 percent, respectively (Ahmed 2004). For FSSAP, the results come from a model, because no control group was available. School-level data indicate that, on average, an additional year of stipend program duration increases the female student secondary enrollment of an incoming cohort by as much as 8 percent. Household- level data, considered a better measure, suggest that an additional year of


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