92 CHAPTER 6


(ranging from 0.04 percent in Malawi to 0.42 percent in Côte d’Ivoire). If 30 percent of the poverty line is transferred to all school-age children, impacts range from negative in Nigeria to just shy of 3 percent in Burundi and Zambia (Kakwani, Soares, and Son 2005). A second study in the same 15 African countries offers a more positive


outlook with respect to OAPs. Kakwani and Subbarao (2005) examine whether children living in elderly-headed households or with elderly alone suffer a disadvantage in education compared to children not living with elderly. They find that for boys, moving from a non-elderly-headed household to an elderly- headed household increases the probability of school attendance, particularly in urban areas. For girls, the relationship varies by country: in Burkina Faso, Burundi, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, and Guinea, the probability of girls’ attending school falls when they shift to elderly-headed households. In Cameroon, Nigeria, Uganda, and Zambia, the opposite is true. The authors conclude that a social pension targeted to poor elderly-headed households could contribute to re- ducing female disadvantage in schooling (Kakwani and Subbarao 2005, 26–27).


Impacts of Conditional Cash Transfers on Education Cash transfers conditioned on education are the oldest form of CCT, seen as early as 1995 at a regional level in Brazil, and the most commonly imple- mented. Table 6.2 summarizes some key impacts of CCTs on education in 11 countries. The education component of CCTs normally requires school enroll- ment, resulting in a school attendance rate of around 85 percent. With respect to these conditionalities, education CCTs tend to have less variation than the health and nutrition components, which have more varied requirements with respect to service participation, age of family members targeted, and adult education. The main variations with respect to education CCT design are, first, whether they are conditioned on primary school only, secondary school only, or both; second, whether they offer a different transfer size for girls and for boys; third, whether they include an in-kind transfer of school supplies; and fourth, whether they include a small transfer intended for the teacher or for school improvements. Other variations may include voluntary forms of par- ticipation for parents, such as in parent–teacher associations. For CCTs with primary and secondary school conditions, the transfer is higher for secondary school because the opportunity cost of children’s schooling is normally higher for older children and because parents are more likely to send their children to primary school, giving less priority to higher levels of education. Children who themselves decide to drop out are also more likely to make this decision at the secondary level. It is most often at the point of transition from primary to secondary school that children are likely to be taken out or decide to leave school. These risks tend to be more pronounced for girls than for boys (except


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