142 CHAPTER 8
bility that children would remain covered by Bolsa Alimentação benefits (IFPRI 2003a; Morris et al. 2004).
Anemia CCTs have demonstrated mixed results on anemia. PRAF demonstrated no evidence of impact on anemia rates among children ages twelve through twenty-three months in any of the intervention groups (IFPRI 2003b). This is consistent with the lack of impact on any nutritional indicator, but the results do not indicate the specific reason behind the lack of impact. Even though Nicaragua’s RPS provided iron supplements, the program demonstrated no impact on anemia in beneficiary children. This lack of impact may have resulted from inconsistent delivery, shortages, and incomplete doses. The program had a large impact on the percentage of mothers receiv- ing iron supplements for their children in the previous four months. The double-difference average impact was 38 percent, in spite of substantial increases among the control group (Maluccio and Flores 2005, 53). Still, these supplements were not necessarily consumed. The qualitative study in the 2002 evaluation uncovered the fact that some beneficiary mothers did not give the iron supplement to their children because of its perceived bad taste and negative gastrological effects (Adato and Roopnaraine 2004). Finally, if children were already deficient in other micronutrients that limited their hematological response to iron supplementation, they would not exhibit re- duced anemia rates (Hoddinott 2010). Results from PROGRESA/Oportunidades in Mexico show positive impacts
on anemia. According to Gertler, PROGRESA resulted in a 25.5 percent reduc- tion in the likelihood that a child age twelve through forty-eight months would be anemic (Gertler 2004, 340). Rivera confirmed this, finding in an experimental study that exposure to PROGRESA had a positive impact on anemia rates (Rivera et al. 2004). According to a 2004 study, Oportunidades was associated with a greater hemoglobin concentration (0.3 grams per deci- liter) in children ages twenty-fourth through thirty-five months, resulting in anemia rates 5 percentage points lower for beneficiary children than for non- beneficiary children in this age group; no impact was noted for older children (ages thirty-six through forty-seven months). These results are not surprising because iron needs are much higher for children ages twenty-four through thirty-five months, and therefore, any additional iron intake would be likely to have a proportionally larger impact for this age group (Hernandez-Prado and Hernandez-Avila 2006, 58). Oportunidades did not demonstrate an impact on maternal anemia rates
(the sample included women over age eighteen who were not pregnant). There are several possible explanations for this lack of impact. First, there was only
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