Biases in the production of knowledge 873


FIG. 3 Co-authoring network of the 30 highest-ranked authors in terms of the number of citations received by their articles (first column, Table 4), by gender (triangles, men; circles, women) and employment country (green, Europe; orange, North America; blue, Latin America (including Mexico); yellow, Sub-Saharan Africa; red, Asia; pink, Oceania). Each node represents an author and lines between nodes indicate that the two authors co-authored at least one paper together. Node size indicates degree score: larger nodes represent those who have co-authored more with others and smaller nodes represent those who have co-authored less. The authors displayed belong to the central network component (in red) of Fig. 2.


as much as others (in the top categories for citations and betweenness; Table 4). Three other authors (Carpenter, Duraiappah, Kareiva) featured in the top cited and top degree lists (i.e. they were well-cited and co-authored ex- tensively). Seven authors (Folke, Biggs, Chan, Egoh, Reyers, Elmqvist, Martin-López) featured in the top degree and betweenness lists; i.e. they published many joint papers and were key network-brokering nodes in the authorship network. In these patterns, forms of academic authority and influence (e.g. in terms of citations, level of collaboration and brokering capability) are not necessarily correlated. With respect to authors’ career trajectories, including the


institutions within which they undertook their PhD and where they have worked, the top five institutions were the Universities of Stanford, Oxford, East Anglia, Maryland and California (Berkeley) (Fig. 4). Most of the top-30 institutions in terms of betweenness centrality scores were located in the USA and the EU. Only Stellenbosch University, and four international research initiatives (the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, United Nations Environment Programme, IPBES, and The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity), had a similar degree of influence (Table 5).


Influence of the Natural Capital Project and the Ecosystem Services for Poverty Alleviation programme


By the time we collected our data (May 2016) the Natural Capital Project and the Ecosystem Services for Poverty


Alleviation programme had resulted in 374 and 343 peer- reviewed articles, respectively. In our sample of 1,430 papers, only 28 (written by 165 authors) were supported by funding from the Natural Capital Project and only 19 (87 authors) were supported by funding from the Ecosystem Services for Poverty Alleviation programme; i.e. only c. 3% of the articles we identified acknowledged support from these two funding programmes. Only one of the authors funded by the Ecosystem


Services for Poverty Alleviation programme (Rounsevell) was in the 30 top cited authors, six were in the 30 top be- tweenness authors (Biggs, Mace, Martin, Reyes, Rounsevell, Williams), and four were in the 30 top degree authors (Biggs, Martin, Petersen, Reyes). For authors funded by the Natural Capital Project, 10 are in the 30 top cited authors (Balvanera, Carpenter, Cramer, Daily, Duraiappah, Kareiva, Mooney, Pejchar, Polasky, Scholes), 15 are in the 30 top betweenness authors and 24 in the 30 top degree authors. Only three authors among the 30 top betweenness and degree scores (Biggs, Martin, Reyers) have authored articles funded by at least one of the funding schemes, and only seven authors contributed to articles funded by both pro- grammes (Biggs, Brown, Johnson,Martin,Reyers, Vira,Wang).


Discussion


The first finding from our analysis is that most knowledge produced on ecosystem services and poverty within our


Oryx, 2021, 55(6), 868–877 © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605320000940


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