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pledges (i.e. to use pesticides correctly, or to report poison- ing) could facilitate strong normative signals and positive social incentives to engage (McKenzie-Mohr & Schultz, 2014). One approach successfully trialled in Lao was im- plementing a hotline to facilitate anonymous reporting of hunting, and then providing public feedback on these re- ports (Saypanya et al., 2013). As a result, influential indivi- duals might perceive that authorities are aware of the prob- lem and that to continue condoning poisoning within their networks could jeopardize their position. As children appear to be using poisons to hunt, interven-
tions could encourage parents to be more vigilant by focus- ing on health risks, working with trusted messengers such as local schools. Because there is heterogeneity in use of poison between villages (Fig. 3), interventions could prioritize those where poisoning is more prevalent, tailored to the situation in each community. Where local chiefs have already acted against poisoning and strong anti-poisoning norms exist, interventions could be co-designed with these authorities. In other places where poisoning is less salient (i.e. villagers are less conscious of it), and norms are weaker, awareness- raising activities could be more impactful. Finally, enforcing existing pesticide regulations, and limiting the availability of restricted chemicals such as carbofurans should be a na- tional priority. Effectively addressing new conservation threats such as
wildlife poisoning requires knowledge of behavioural dri- vers and social contexts (St John et al., 2013). For such sensitive behaviours, data collection can be challenging. Nevertheless, as our study shows, using multiple comple- mentary methods and triangulating data allowed us to draw more reliable inferences. These findings can be used to select interventions that are likely to be more effective than those based on intuition or expert opinion (Cook et al., 2010). Robust testing and evaluation of the ensuing in- terventions will also be essential (Baylis et al., 2016) but, whether or not evaluation occurs, formativemixed-methods research, as carried out in this study, can play a valuable role in conservation interventions. As poisoning is potentially widespread and may have catastrophic impacts on wildlife, people, domestic animals and the environment, this issue should be prioritized by local and national authorities.
Acknowledgements Wethank the Royal Government of Cambodia Ministry of Environment, Preah Vihear Department of Environment, and the Provincial Governor of Preah Vihear for facilitating this research; Alistair Mould, Simon Mahood, Ashish John, Rours Vann (rest in peace), Tong Sokha, Keo Sovanna, Uy Sitha, and others at the Wildlife Conservation Society Cambodia Programme for support and guidance; the village chiefs who hosted and supported us, especial- ly Aum Rue; the respondents and participants; an anonymous review- er; and Dona Sao for translating this article into Khmer. Permission for the research was given by the Ministry of Environment, the Provincial Governor’s office, and each village chief. Credit for Fig. 1: Wildlife Conservation Society Cambodia. EdL was supported by a studentship from the UK Government Natural Environment Research Council E3
Doctoral Training Partnership (grant number NERC NE/L002558/1), and an Early Career Grant from the National Geographic Society.
Author contributions Study design: EdL, EJMG, AK, YV, LC; field- work: EdL, YV, LC; data analysis: EdL; writing: EdL, EJMG, AK, SP.
Conflicts of interest None.
Ethical standards This research was approved by the ethics committee of the School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh (No. 191, 2017), and abided by the Oryx guidelines on ethical standards.
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