846 P. McElwee et al.


re-interviewed in 2015 (23% of the sample). The reasons for female headship varied: in Lâm Đồng province, ethnic Koho communities have traditionally followed matrilocal inheritance, so women are often listed as household heads, even when the husband is still present. In the other sites, female-headed households were more commonly women who had been widowed, divorced or whose husband was away as a migrant worker. Focus groups were also organized in each research village


in 2011, 2012 and 2014, with one specifically female focus group in each province, led by Vietnamese women research- ers, whereas the other focus groups were mixed. Activities in the women’s focus groups included discussing time management activities, gendered natural resources use, and risk-mapping. Interviews with government officials and policymakers in each field site (.50 total) also took place in 2011, 2012 and 2014; gender issues were one of the many topics discussed.


Results


Sixty-seven per cent of households surveyed in 2011 received some cash income from forest production, collection or conservation, across categories such as fuelwood, timber, non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and PES (Table 1). These activities contributed 20% of household incomes in Lâm Đồng, 10%inThừa Thiên Huế and 3%inSơnLa in 2011.In 2015, forest income had increased to 31% of total household incomes in Lâm Đồng (primarily a result of PES) and 6%inSơn La.


Use of forests


FIG. 1 The three provinces of Viet Nam in which fieldwork took place (Lâm Đồng, Sơn La and Thừa Thiên Huế).


assessed local livelihoods, labour, ethnicity, income and ex- penditures, land holdings, natural resource use, impacts of climate hazards, and participation in forest projects, includ- ing PES.We followed up in spring and summer 2015 with an- other round of interviews with the same households in only two provinces (LâmĐồng and Sơn La), as therewas a delay in implementing PES in ThừaThiên Huế. The final database comprised 227 cases (households) in 2011 measured on 602 variables (indicators), and the second survey in 2015 com- prised 133 cases on the same variables. The surveys were carried out by both male and female surveyors, including the authors and several students who were trained by us. Although we did not deliberately stratify our sample


to include them, 45 female-headed households were in- terviewed in 2011 (20% of the sample) and 31 were


There were gendered differences in forest use, as a women’s focus group in LâmĐồng noted: in particular, women were in charge of water provisioning, biomass (fuelwood), food, and NTFPs, whereas men’s work included pest control, marketing of goods, and finding timber for house repair. Non-timber forest products were recorded as important for women across all sites in 2011: in Lâm Đồng, forest mushrooms and medicinal plants were collected; in Sơn La, food such as tubers and roots were consumed; and in Thừa Thiên Huế, rattans and bamboos were sold. However, by 2015, we saw a considerable drop in income from NTFPs to zero in Lâm Đồng, with its complete re- placement by PES income, and in Sơn La (which had low payments for environmental services), income from fuel- wood and honey had increased in value (Table 1). Women were responsible for household energy supplies,


and the majority of survey households (79%) reported us- ing fuelwood in 2011, with many households reporting shortages and increasing lengths of time to collect it in Lâm Đồng and SơnLa(Table 2), whereas in Thừa Thiên


Oryx, 2021, 55(6), 844–852 © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605320000733


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