840 J. S. Kahler and M. A. Rinkus
TABLE 2 Aspects of women’s wildlife crime victimization frompeer-reviewed (P), non-peer reviewed (N), and theoretical (T) sources, based on Cao &Wyatt’s(2016) green victimization conceptual framework.
Dimension of insecurity
Community Economic
Environmental Food
Health Personal Political Evidence of victimization
N: Community terrorized, women kidnapped & raped by elephant poachers, Democratic Republic of the Congo (Hance, 2012)
N: Poor families lured into rhinoceros poaching in Nepal jailed, leaving no working age men in communities, requiring women to collect & sell firewood or do menial labour to survive (Sedhai, 2017)
T: Transnational environmental crime (e.g. illegal logging) may spread invasive species, degrade ecosystems & pollute drinking water (Gore et al., 2019)
T: Depletion of fish stocks as a result of illegal & unregulated fishing in West Africa (Brashares et al., 2014) P: Fish-for-sex phenomenon increases women’s risk of contracting HIV/AIDS (Béné & Merten, 2008)
N: Women mistaken for poachers in Nepal’s Bardia National Park killed while gathering tree bark; woman severely beaten in the Chitwan National Forest buffer zone after attempted rape (National Human Rights Commission, 2010)
T: Increased securitization & anti-poaching responses leading to increased green land grabs & exclusion of local people near Kruger National Park, South Africa (Hübschle, 2017)
specifically talk about women, it is likely that women’s livelihoods may be diminished as they lose access to food resources, ecosystem services, agricultural implements, building materials, medicines and fuelwood (Table 2). Additionally, studies associated with poaching of rhino- ceroses (Ceretotherium simum and Diceros bicornis) in and around South Africa’s Kruger National Park provide exam- ples of how increased poaching and the resulting increased militarization has affected the personal and political security of women and their communities (Hübschle, 2017; Massé et al., 2017; Hübschle & Shearing, 2018). Secondary victim- ization of women may occur when young men are arrested or killed by law enforcement, leaving widows to tend to fatherless households and mothers without sons (Massé et al., 2017). We would expect this to affect communities, and women directly, on an economic and personal level. Hübschle (2017) documented deep concern among mothers and wives about the economic insecurity that may occur fol- lowing the arrest or death of a breadwinner, the detrimental impacts of poaching on the community, and disparate vul- nerability of women and children (Table 2). Theoretically women may also be disproportionately affected by politi- cal insecurity generated through increased anti-poaching responses in areas such as Kruger National Park, which have led to further exclusion of local people through so- called green land grabs (Table 2; Hübschle, 2017). Furthermore, severe and devastating impacts on the per-
sonal and health security of women has been documented in association with wildlife crime and interactions with anti-poaching law enforcement. In 2000, the International Fund for Animal Welfare released a video of Russian police officers illegally trading tiger pelts. An investigation revealed that the smuggling ring was also involved in the traffick- ing of drugs, alcohol and women (PR Newswire, 2000). Investigations into further evidence of the parallel traffick- ing ofwomen and wildlife products are warranted. This type
of victimization can lead to severe personal consequences, including violence and sexual exploitation. Accusations and verified cases of women being beaten, sexually assaulted and killed by wildlife law enforcement have been reported (Table 2).
Discussion
Gender, as one of the primary social constructs that struc- tures access to resources, and societal power dynamics, needs to be considered by researchers during the design, implementation and interpretation phases of research. Despite the long history and extensive literature of main- streaming gender and women in development (Visvanathan et al., 2011) and advances made within conservation, our re- view of the peer-reviewed literature on wildlife crime shows that, to a large extent, women remain a hidden element, with a lack of consideration of gender within wildlife crime analysis.We argue that more research into the direct and in- direct roles of women in wildlife crime is needed, to address wildlife crime, protect biodiversity and support social justice in response and planning. The most straightforward path to- wards this goal is accounting for gender in research design, from simply recording the gender identity of research respon- dents to increasing efforts to engage women as respondents. Targeted research on gender roles and relationships, and the roles ofwomen specifically, in wildlife crime is alsowarranted. Considering the typology of key offender roles in wild-
life crimes and relevance to the involvement of men and women, there are many theoretical and practical gaps to be filled, particularly within the areas of harvesting and con- sumption (Table 1). Conservation researchers need to draw on relevant and criminologically informed typologies (e.g. Phelps et al., 2016) to help them think more robustly and with more nuance about the variety of actors and be- haviours involved in wildlife crimes. There are demonstrated
Oryx, 2021, 55(6), 835–843 © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605321000193
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