894 P. K. Yadav et al.
human-populated landscapes, tigers face many threats, in- cluding illegal poaching for the illicit trade of tiger body parts (Campbell et al., 2019; Wong & Krishnasamy, 2019). Retaliatory killings in response to livestock predation and human fatalities are other threats to tigers in the Terai Arc Landscape and the Himalayas (Lamichhane et al., 2017). TRAFFIC reported an increase in illegal tiger trade over
19 years across the tiger range countries, including those in the Himalayan region, and, consequently, transboundary cooperation and capacity building to combat the tiger trade have often been recommended (Wong & Krishnasamy, 2019). Paudel et al. (2020) concluded that enforcement alone is not the best tool for tiger conservation. For example, despite strict wildlife protection laws, the illegal trade of tiger body parts from Bhutan, India and Nepal is increasing (Karmacharya et al., 2018). Seizure data of illicit tiger trade for 2000–2018 indicate that most transit routes originate in Bhutan, India or Nepal, with destinations in China and South-east Asian countries (Wong & Krishnasamy, 2019). Paudel et al. (2020) identified substantial research gaps regarding enforcement rates, prison sentences, conviction information, species targeted, behavioural drivers and deterrents, and the social impacts of enforcement.
Conclusions and recommendations
This systematic scoping review has identified focal research areas, the spatial and temporal distribution of study sites, general publication trends, the extent of empirical studies, and gaps in tiger conservation research in the Terai Arc Landscape and Himalayas. This information can be used to design conservation policies, develop adaptation strat- egies, prioritize research programmes, and help decision makers allocate resources based on empirical evidence. The principal themes of the 216 studies we identified, pub- lished during 2000–2020, were tiger habitat and ecology, and human–tiger conflict in protected areas. Identifying gaps in research is important because human
and tiger populations are both projected to increase, which will result in additional research needs, particularly asso- ciated with the human dimensions of wildlife management and in high-altitude landscapes of the Himalayas. Tiger con- servation remains a globally relevant concern and a trans- national issue, particularly in relation to the illicit trade of tiger body parts. Habitat degradation and human encroach- ment into healthy ecosystemsmay continue to threaten tiger populations, contributing to the need for landscape-scale conservation research that involves both tigers and people as research subjects. As human behaviour, values and popu- lations change, tigers will adapt and shift as well, which will lead to new research gaps and needs. Summaries, such as this scoping review, are necessary to ensure that the relevant literature is periodically characterized
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AIYADURAI,A. (2016) Tigers are our brothers: understanding human-nature relations in the Mishmi Hills, Northeast India. Conservation and Society, 14, 305–316.
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ANWAR,M.&BORAH,J. (2020) Functional status of a wildlife corridor with reference to the tiger in Terai Arc Landscape of India. Tropical Ecology, 60, 525–531.
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BARGALI, H.S. & AHMED,T.(2018) Patterns of livestock depredation by tiger (Panthera tigris) and leopard (Panthera pardus) in and around Corbett tiger reserve, Uttarakhand, India. PLOS ONE, 13, e0195612.
BASAK, K., DIBYENDU, M., SANJAY, B., RAHUL, K., ASHRAF, N.V.K., SINGH,A.&KRISHNENDU,M.(2018) Prey animals of tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) in Dudhwa. Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 71, 92–98.
BHATTACHARYA,A. & HABIB,B.(2016) Highest elevation record of tiger presence from India. CATnews, 64, 24–25.
BHATTARAI, B.R.,WRIGHT,W., MORGAN, D., COOK,S.&BARAL, H.S. (2019) Managing human–tiger conflict: lessons from Bardia and Chitwan National Parks, Nepal. European Journal ofWildlife Research, 65, 34.
Oryx, 2022, 56(6), 888–896 © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605322001156
and catalogued so that decision makers, policy officials, re- searchers, managers and other stakeholders can understand the trends and extent of empirical findings. With such infor- mation, tiger conservation initiatives and policies can be more fully informed and implemented.
Acknowledgments We thank the Tigers United University Consortium and the Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management at Clemson University for their administrative support in conducting this research; Savannah Dopkins, Carissa Wheeler, Shuai Yuan and Amar Nath Choudhary for their assistance; and Rajesh Gopal, S.P. Yadav, Lori Dickes and BrettWright for providing feedback that improved this article.
Author contributions Data collection: PKY; design and analysis: PKY, MTJB; writing and revision: all authors.
Conflicts of interest None.
Ethical standards This research abided by the Oryx guidelines on ethical standards. Because human or animal subjects were not used in this study, institutional review by Clemson Universitywas not required. However, this research project was approved by the Director of Park Solutions Lab at Clemson University and met all ethical standards for institutional research that does not involve human or animal subjects.
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