914 P. Scholte Militarization and community relations
National stakeholders are almost unanimous in praising pri- vate partners for the law enforcement they have undertaken, with only a few hinting at green militarization (Scholte et al., 2018). This law enforcement has, however, been strongly criticized by some academics. Marijnen (2017), for exam- ple, described how a network of policymakers within the European Commission renders militarized conservation- related violence and controversy around Virunga National Park invisible by framing these matters as solely caused by economic factors and motivations.With increasing attention to possiblehuman rights abuses by protected area authorities (Buzzfeed, 2019–2020), this and related critiques should be taken as a warning to bring conservation in line with inter- national expectations for the respect of human rights. Although delegated management partnerships are often
praised for the resources made available for the develop- ment of community infrastructure (e.g. schools, clinics, water points), maintaining good personal relations with communities is considered much weaker (Scholte et al., 2021a). The contracting of the private partner has sometimes caused a break with well-established teams that had built decade-long relations with local communities. In addition, private partners have to manage a high turnover of expatri- ate staff who initially are often wildlife-oriented, and only later show more interest in community engagement.
Five recommendations
To address the challenges described above, I present five re- commendations to guidemoremature delegated management.
Recommendation (1), addressing governments Create an enabling delegated management environment and diversify its models, through (1) developing legislation for public– private partnerships where necessary; (2) building upon ex- perience with the lease of trophy hunting zones to develop a more diverse set of delegated management partnership models; and (3) developing the possibility for appropriate management bodies (trusts, foundations, non-profit busi- nesses) and adapting legislation where necessary.
Recommendation (2), addressing governments Ensure leadership in setting goals for management modes and sub- sequent contracting, by: (1) identifying appropriate types of management within the protected area network; (2) exhibit- ing transparency and consistency in the contracting phase through public tender of the protected area delegated management, thereby limiting any perceived cronyism and allowing other stakeholders to participate in the decision process (such as when the council of ministers in Rwanda was consulted prior to contracting Nyungwe National
Park); (3) describing expected results in contracts and quan- tifying them, where appropriate, as the basis for evaluations; (4) working proactively to prepare for the follow-up to de- legated management, even if it seems far into the future. With respect to (1), in addition to the overall delegated management outsourcing (theAfrican Parksmodel), specific protected area services (tourism, community development, research) can be outsourced for one or several protected areas together. The identification process is an opportunity to reach out to stakeholders from local authorities and com- munities to integrate their opinions into the identification process and extend ownership beyond the protected area service. This diversification of delegated management mod- els may include protected areas under the responsibility of local or provincial authorities (Scholte et al., 2021a).
Recommendation (3), addressing private partners Make yourself dispensable through capacity development and ensuring the long-term financial sustainability of the pro- tected area, by (1) preparing national staff to take over management tasks through systematic capacity development programmes; (2) initiating and participating in the develop- ment of sustainable financing mechanisms with trust funds and other funding sources (e.g. payment for ecosystem ser- vices); (3) cooperating with and where possible supporting related initiatives and local organizations, such as the incu- bator programme of African Parks, which aims to scale up its conservation impact by mentoring other organizations; (4) building on the gains of previous management, especial- ly to further community relations that are often the product of long interactions.
Recommendation (4), addressing governments and private partners Respect human rights and build coalitions with communities by: (1) signing up and reporting to human right declarations, and developing mechanisms to hold protected area personnel accountable for their actions; (2) building genuine coalitions with communities, not only by providing support to social infrastructure and employment of local people, but also by consultation with community leaders in decision-making processes; (3) exhibiting trans- parency with respect to funding sources and finances of sup- ported protected areas (a good example is the annual report of African Parks, 2011, which shows the costs of the various protected area services), and rendering delegated manage- ment contracts available upon reasonable request; (4) im- plementing the contracts as prescribed, including the con- tractually programmed evaluations (if not possible, partners should agree on mutually acceptable modifications).
Recommendation (5), addressing governments, private part- ners and funding agencies One should do the work one is expert at, by (1) focusing on the core tasks of delegated
Oryx, 2022, 56(6), 908–916 © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605321000752
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