874 P. Carignano Torres et al.
prevent large flows of wildmeat into towns, despite the weak enforcement of relevant laws. Moreover, domesticated meat, especially frozen chicken, is relatively cheap and substitutes for wildmeat even amongst poor urban households. Beef is also available locally and relatively affordable in Ipixuna, one of the towns we studied (PCT & LP, unpubl. data, 2015). Finally, consuming wildmeat is a rural-related prac- tice that tends to diminish in towns over time and genera- tions (Chaves et al., 2021a; Lemos et al., 2021).
Conclusion
We show that urban wildmeat consumption in central Amazonia is related to social food-sharing networks and rural–urban mobility. This challenges common perceptions of urban wildmeat consumption being driven primarily by vendors and markets (Fig. 3 in Ingram et al., 2021). Accounting for rural–urban mobility and the persistence of rural livelihoods could help achieve sustainability goals (e.g. by including urban stakeholders in discussions regard- ing the management of natural resources; Padoch et al., 2008; Eloy et al., 2015; Hecht et al., 2015). If the legal ban on urban wildmeat consumption was actually enforced in Brazilian Amazonia, then the risk of resulting food insecur- ity would be greatest for rural–urban migrants, who tend to maintain rural livelihoods and social networks. However, policy interventions to restrict the urban trade in wildmeat could affect migrants to a lesser degree, given that they pur- chase wildmeat less often. This is particularly important as consumer preferences for Vulnerable species (T. pecari and T. terrestris), which are often accessed through market ex- changes, are probably a causal factor in the depletion of their populations even in remote locations . 100 km from central Amazonian towns (Parry & Peres, 2015; Abrahams et al., 2017). Despite claims of high demand in towns (El Bizri et al., 2020b; Chaves et al., 2021a,b) and although de- mand could increase because of urban growth, we show that conservation interventions relating to wildmeat consump- tion remain more urgent in rural locations. Thus, monitor- ing rural–urban flows of threatened species and sustainably managing rural hunting arewarranted where strong institu- tional arrangements facilitate this approach.
Acknowledgements We thank A. de Moraes, M.A.T. Pinto, G.B. Correia, N.B. Migon, M.G. Fink, M.P. Freire, R.F.R. Costa and L.M.L. Silva for support with data collection; the participants for their involvement in this study; and all institutions and personnel that provided logistical support. This research was funded by a Future Research Leaders Fellowship to LP (ES/K010018/1), the Newton Fund/FAPEAM (ES/M011542/1), CNPq (CsF PVE 313742/2013-8), CAPES-ProAmazonia (3322-2013), the European Commission Horizon 2020 RISE programme (691053 – ODYSSEA) and post- doctoral grants from CNPq (401700/2013-5) and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) – 001 to PCT.
Author contributions Study design and fieldwork: PCT, LP; data analysis and writing: PCT, CM, LP.
Conflicts of interest None.
Ethical standards This research abided by the Oryx guidelines on ethical standards and was carried out following the rules and guidelines of the Brazilian National Health Council (Resolution 466/12) and the British Sociological Association. The research and interview protocol were evaluated and approved by the National Health Research Ethics Committee of Brazil (CONEP/CNS; protocol 45383215.5.0000.0005) and the Research Ethics Committee of Lancaster University (S2014/ 126). Written free and informed consent was obtained from all inter- viewees after explaining the research aims and protocols and before ad- ministering the interviews. This included a statement ensuring that the information provided to participants would only be known to project researchers and names and personal data would remain confidential. One copy, signed by the study coordinator, remained with the partici- pant. In rural areas, we first approached the leader of each riverine community and held a community meeting to explain our research aims and protocols. Only after receiving the verbal approval of the community for conducting the research did we proceed to interview participants.
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Oryx, 2022, 56(6), 864–876 © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605321001575
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