Using population surveys and models 851
FIG. 3 The accumulated (1995–2019) and predicted habitat loss according to different scenarios of deforestation within the geographical range of P. bernhardi.
Red List based on criteria A3c (i.e. population reduction projected, inferred or suspected to be met in the future; Boubli et al., 2020). Questions regarding how Amazonian titi monkeys will cope with habitat fragmentation and what the genetic consequences of population reduction will be in these scenarios remain unanswered. Based on our analysis and given the increasing rates of
deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon, we recommend that P. bernhardi should be categorized at least as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. In addition to habitat loss, several other anthropogenic activities could further affect P. bern- hardi. For example, greater contact with people in remnant forest could increase the transmission of pathogens, includ- ing diseases with high fatality rates such as yellow fever, which have been reducing populations of non-human pri- mate species in southern Brazil significantly, including titi monkeys (de Melo Mares et al., 2020; Berthet et al., 2021; Fernandes et al., 2021). In addition, fragmentation could provide new points of access to the forest for hunters and
increase the harvest of wild animals (Renó et al., 2016). The scenario described here for P. bernhardi therefore also raises concerns for the conservation of other species in highly impacted landscape of the southern Amazon. Examples include marmosets and titi monkeys that are currently categorized as Least Concern (e.g. M. chrysoleucos, Mico intermedius, P. cinerascens) or Data Deficient (Plectur- ocebus miltoni, Plecturocebus vierai), but that have large portions or even the entirety of their ranges lying in the Arc of Deforestation. Although legally protected lands are essential for the conservation of Amazonian species, their integrity and effectiveness are at risk under the policies of the current government in Brazil (Pereira et al., 2019, 2020; Diele-Viegas et al., 2020; Paiva et al., 2020; Pelicice & Castello, 2021). Initiatives being promoted by the govern- ment and by politicians associated with agribusiness are weakening environmental regulations for controlling defor- estation, resulting in a new wave of forest loss (Magnusson et al., 2018; Andrade et al., 2021;Mataveli et al., 2021; Ruaro et al., 2021). Such initiatives include the proposed bills PL490/2007 and PL191/2020, allowing mining and hydro- power dams within Indigenous lands, and the so called land-grabbing bills PL2633/2020 and PL510/2021, which grant an amnesty to land-grabbers and invaders that irregu- larly occupy exploited and deforested federal lands (Aleixo & Junior, 2022). Consequently, activities that increase deforestation in the southern Amazon such as land grab- bing, illegal logging, mining and fire are being facilitated against a backdrop of impunity and a lack of governance (Azevedo-Ramos et al., 2020; Cardil et al., 2020; Pereira et al., 2020; das Neves et al., 2021; Mataveli et al., 2021). Even a small number of misguided and irresponsible pol- icy decisions can significantly worsen an already difficult future scenario for Amazonian primates (Estrada et al., 2018; Carvalho et al., 2019; Sales et al., 2019). The increasing eco- nomic and development pressures on this biome threaten not only titi monkeys but all species currently categorized as Least Concern in this region.
Acknowledgements Data collection and analysis were supported by the Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (process numbers: 200502/2015-8, 302140/2020-4, 300365/2021-7, 301407/2021-5, 201475/2017-0), the Conservation Leadership Programme (02111212), the Primate Action Fund (#SMA-CCO-G0000000037), Primate Conservation, Inc. (PCI#1110), the International Primatological Society, and IdeaWild.We thank the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation (Grant Agreement to Mamirauá Institute for Sustainable Development, #5344), Isaac Theobald and Aldeísa for logistical support and Catitu and José’s family for support in the field.
Author contributions Study design: FES, HREB; data collection: FES, LPL, ACG, ODdS, JCD, MIS; data analysis: FES, LGP, CLBF, HREB; interpretation of results and writing: all authors.
Conflicts of interest None. Oryx, 2022, 56(6), 846–853 © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605322000655
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