498 E. H. Walker et al.
TABLE 2 Classification criteria for determining habituation level of release candidates. Adapted from Weise et al. (2015).
Habituation level
Behavioural criteria
Not-habituated No tolerance for humans in any context: direct observation nearly impossible; extreme levels of stress when confined
Semi-habituated Avoids human presence except in feeding contexts, immediately runs away to find cover after being fed; direct observation possible from suitable distance & in certain contexts; high levels of stress when confined
Habituated
Tolerates human presence in non-feeding contexts; does not exhibit normal cheetah flight response when approached; low stress levels when confined
of whole carcasses of natural prey. This provided the release candidates with the experience to open and feed from intact carcasses and prepared their system to handle less frequent, larger quantities of food. A veterinarian registered with the Veterinary Council ofNamibia performed a full health exam- ination under anaesthesia on all candidates prior to release to verify good health status and fit cheetahswith aGPS/VHF col- lartoenablepost-releasemonitoring. Allreleasesweredone under permission from Namibia’s Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism. For additional details on release prepa- ration and collaring, see Supplementary Material 2.
Release type We used two release types (hard and soft). In a hard release individuals are freed into the new environ- ment immediately upon arrival, whereas in a soft release in- dividuals are allowed a period of acclimation to their new environment in a temporary holding facility (a boma) be- fore release (Hunter et al., 2007). A soft release aims to suppress the tendency to return to the location of capture, known as homing, thereby encouraging the establishment of a home range within the release site (Hayward et al., 2007; Briers-Louw et al., 2019). Cheetahs soft-released in this study were kept in holding bomas for 1–5 months. Any animal released into the Greater Waterberg Landscape from an enclosure located within the landscape was consid- ered soft-released. For some individuals, we used both re- lease types as some cheetahs were released more than once during the study (Table 3). Pre-release hunting train- ing may increase post-release survival (Houser et al., 2011). Therefore, we trialled a release preparation technique, training–release, on some individuals, providing them with hunting experience in a monitored and relatively safe envi- ronment (Bellebenno release training camp; Fig. 1) prior to release. Training–release trials took place early in our study and were used for individuals or groups that had character- istics prompting concern for their survival chances (e.g. long periods of time in captivity, physical issues). A given
TABLE 3 Breakdown of releases by release site, release type and released cheetahs.
Release site
Training–release reserve
Greater Waterberg Landscape
Erindi Private Game Reserve
NamibRand Nature Reserve
Release type
Soft Soft
Hard Soft
Cheetahs
Training SF2, SF31, SF41, CF11, CF2, FC1, CM11, CM2
SF1, SF22, SF52, SF6, SF7, SF8, SF9, SF10, SF11, SF12 SF52, CM4
SF22, FC1, CF2, CM2 CM32, CF3
Hard CM32
1Indicates cheetahs that failed their training–release and were returned to captivity; bold font indicates individuals that underwent training–release
prior to release. 2Indicates cheetahs released more than once.
candidate group or individual was released into the training camp and monitored intensely during daylight hours, facili- tated by the manageable size (4,000 ha) of the camp. Dur- ing these trials cheetahs were fed smaller portions more frequently (every 2–3 days) than during an actual release (Supplementary Material 3). Once an individual or coalition achieved independence in terms of hunting, preparation began for the final release. Individuals that failed to transi- tion towards the expected routine of a wild cheetah were returned to permanent captivity.
Post-release monitoring protocol
Monitoring routine/schedule We attempted to locate each individual or group twice daily (during 05.00–09.00 and 15.00–19.00) and recorded all actions during the monitoring period. The monitoring team used collar GPS data each morning to find the cheetahs or began tracking from the in- dividual’s last known location if it only had a VHF collar. The team determined and prioritized monitoring activity based upon the overnight developments captured by the GPS data or on the events of the previous day. Additionally, as cheetahs rarely scavenge, we visited GPS cluster points to identify carcass remains as evidence for any kill made by the individual or coalition.
Supplemental feeding/water and medical aid Supplemental feeding and watering occurred as necessary with all released cheetahs. If a cheetah failed to make a kill when expected or necessary (based on its body condition), we fed a large meal (5–8 kg per cheetah of either horse/donkey Equus sp. or game meat) to that individual or group. If an individual or group had still not made a successful kill after the second or third week of release, we started decreasing the frequency of feedings to promote hunting. Minimal feeding frequency was maintained to ensure that cheetahs were not at risk of loss of condition or starvation. Supplemental feeding
Oryx, 2022, 56(4), 495–504 © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605321000235
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