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496 E. H. Walker et al.


similar to those of their wild counterparts (Houser et al., 2011; Vebber et al., 2020). As wildlife populations continue to decline, the value of


releasing captive-bred and captive-raised individuals may grow. By increasing post-release survival, use of these indi- viduals for release efforts vs wild-caught individuals could mitigate the pressure on vulnerable and/or dwindling wild populations (Wilson & Price, 1994; Schwartz et al., 2018). Cheetahs naturally live at low population densities and are at risk of further decline as a result of human–wildlife conflict, habitat loss and illegal trade (Marker et al., 2018a,b). Rehabilitation of orphaned/trapped individuals could therefore be a complementary approach for cheetah con- servation. Despite recent successful releases of cheetahs, the


need for improved understanding and methodology, and for evidence-based decision-making and management in reintroduction practices for carnivores, is well established (Hayward, et al., 2007; Gusset et al., 2008; Jule et al., 2008; Taylor et al., 2017). Here we present a methodological framework for cheetah rehabilitation and post-release management based on the outcome of release trials conducted by the Cheetah Conservation Fund during 2004–2018. We present the characteristics of release sites and a detailed description of the selection process of release candidates, followed by an overview of our pre- and post-release management protocol. Then, we analyse post-release survival in light of the main biological (age when orphaned, sex), ecological (group size, release site) and management-related (captivity time, training– release) factors that we expected to affect post-release survival. These findings are incorporated into our man- agement recommendations for the rehabilitation and release of wild-born, captive-raised cheetahs, and we encourage scientists and managers to implement, expand and refine this protocol throughout the cheetah’scurrent and historical range.


Methods


Release site characteristics The study area included three release sites in Namibia within the cheetah’scurrent andhistoricalrange (Table 1, Fig. 1, Supplementary Table 1). Assessed by surveys and expert knowledge, all sites had sufficient prey available, suit- able cheetah habitat, and natural and artificial water points that provided water year-round. Release sites were suffi- ciently large to meet the ecological requirements of chee- tahs (Lindsey et al., 2011). Competing carnivores were present in all release sites. Cheetahs may persist well in systems with dominant competitors through fine-scale avoidance strategies (Durant, 1998, 2000; Broekhuis et al.,


2013; Swanson et al., 2014, 2016), thus the presence of other carnivores was not considered to be a limiting factor. Resident conspecificsmay negatively influence release efforts, but established, long-term monitoring was present in all re- lease sites and none had large resident cheetah populations. In addition, both the NamibRand Nature Reserve and the GreaterWaterberg Landscape facilitate natural regulation of existing cheetah populations through natural dispersal, as they are open systems. NamibRand Nature Reserve was es- tablished as an open system in 1984. The Greater Waterberg Landscape is an open system with mixed land use of live- stock and game farming and includes the Bellebenno release training camp. Erindi Private Game Reserve is a private fenced reserve that was converted from a cattle farm in 2008.


Release candidate selection


The selection of cheetahs to be released was based on the following parameters:


Age at orphaning We considered individuals orphaned at an age of 6 months or older as release candidates. At this age, they have experienced 4 months or more out of the natal den with their mother, learning survival skills (Caro, 1994). This enabled us tominimize their habituation to humans during captivity, as they did not need the close care that younger orphans required. Individuals orphaned at 3–5 months were considered for release if bonded to older orphans that qualified. Once bonded, the older orphans help minimize habituation levels in the younger orphans.


Level of habituation Weassessed the degree of habituation of each release candidate with the classification criteria described by Weise et al. (2015)(Table 2), adapted for this study. Individuals classified as habituated were not con- sidered releasable. We aimed for candidates to be semi- habituated at the time of release, to allow the monitoring team to track and observe the individual post-release reli- ably. This level of habituation could be maintained for most individuals orphaned at $6 months of age (and their younger coalition members), as those candidates only had exposure to human activity during husbandry rou- tines (e.g. feeding, health check, management training). By maintaining the optimal habituation level for all candidates, we aimed to reduce the impact of captivity time on survival probability (Weise et al., 2015).


Social grouping Adult female cheetahs live solitarily except when breeding or raising cubs, whereas males formlifelong groups with their brothers, known as coalitions (Caro, 1994; Wachter et al., 2018). Living in a coalition may improve male survival probability (Durant et al., 2004). If bonded at an


Oryx, 2022, 56(4), 495–504 © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605321000235


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