604 A. Chaitae et al.


FIG. 1 Timeline of the legal status of elephants in Thailand. The timeline shows distinctive periods in the developing legal status of elephants. Asian elephants Elephas maximus have been considered as draught animals since 1891 (captive Asian elephant), and identification documents for elephants were employed more than a decade earlier. Regulations related to the capture of wild Asian elephant were prescribed by enactment of the Wild Elephant Protection Act R.E. 119 (1900). The wild Asian elephant has been protected under the Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act (WARPA) since 1975, although hunting of all wildlife in protected areas has been prohibited upon the issuance ofWARPA in 1960. The Act later included the African elephant Loxodonta africana in the category of protected animal, and this species now receives the same protection as the wild Asian elephant.


their offspring) are registered as draught animals under the Draught Animals Act, whereas wild Asian elephants and African elephants are protected species under WARPA (see Supplementary Table 1 for details).


Legal framework for the regulation of ivory possession and trade


Current regulations regarding the transport, possession, domestic trade, import and export of elephant ivory in Thailand are complex and reflect the differences in the legal status of the three categories of elephants (Fig. 2). Although WARPA (2019) and the Elephant Ivory Act (2015) are the major laws controlling activities related to ivory, there are six additional laws that require enforcement by five authorities from four ministries (Supplementary Table 1). Members of the Royal Thai Police also serve as enforcement officers under the two main acts. In addition, in 2013 the illegal exploitation of natural resources for com- mercial purposes (including ivory-related activities) was included as a case offense under the Money Laundering Control Act B.E. 2542 (1999), thereby allowing proceedings for asset forfeiture in addition to prosecution under the main laws (Money Laundering Control Act (No. 4)B.E. 2556, 2013). Illicit export or export of ivory may also result in prosecution under the Prevention and Suppression of


Involvement in Transnational Crime Organization Act B.E. 2556 (2013). The Elephant Ivory Act B.E. 2558 (2015) requires ivory to


be registered, with information including evidence of ivory acquisition (i.e. a certificate of origin for elephant ivory is- sued by registrars of the Draught Animals Act; DNP, 2017). People who possess ivory must notify the relevant official of changes in ownership, place of possession and ivory modi- fication or manufacturing. Inter-provincial movement of raw ivory also requires a permit, upon presentation of the certificate of origin for elephant ivory, according to the Animal Epidemics Act B.E. 2558 (2015). Trade in ivory is controlled by at least three different laws: (1) permission and compliances under the Elephant Ivory Act (2015) (Ministerial Regulation on application, permission, trade and suspension or revocation of ivory trade permit B.E. 2558, 2015), (2) registration under the Commercial Registra- tion Act B.E. 2499 (1956) (Notification of the Ministry of Commerce on registration requirement of businesses (No. 8)B.E. 2547, 2004), and (3) account keeping under the Accounting Act B.E. 2547 (2000) (Notification of Ministry of Commerce on prescribing the duty of accounts mainten- ance for ivory-related entrepreneurs B.E. 2551, 2008). A trade permit under the Animal Epidemics Act B.E. 2558 (2015)is also required if trade involves raw ivory. Permits are required by law for the export and import of all three types of ivory; however, permission is granted only


Oryx, 2022, 56(4), 601–608 © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605321000077


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