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602 A. Chaitae et al.


2015 if it did not undertake satisfactory action to address this illegal ivory trade (SC65 Com. 7, 2014). This prompted a re- vision of Thailand’s National Ivory Action Plan, including legislative reforms through the new Elephant Ivory Act (2015), to regulate trade in locally sourced ivory, and the list- ing of the African elephant as a protected species (SC66 Doc.29 Annex 8, 2015). These reforms facilitated compre- hensive monitoring of the ivory trade and allowed author- ities to address the illegal trade in African ivory. The resulting significant decrease in the domestic ivory market, together with large-scale seizures of smuggled ivory, eventu- ally enabled Thailand to exit the National Ivory Action Plans Process (SC70 Sum. 2 (Rev. 1), 2018). Nonetheless, as a coun- try with a domestic ivory trade, Thailand continues to be bound to implement the Resolution of the Conference of the Parties 10.10 (CITES, 2019b). Requirements include control of the domestic market to prevent illegal activities related to the international ivory trade, and recommen- dations to close the legal domestic ivory trade if it involves illegal activities in other countries (CITES, 2019b). Our review draws on peer-reviewed and grey literature


to describe the challenge of sustainably managing elephants and ivory in Thailand, where such management is driven by a complex mix of cultural, livelihood and conservation values, and where there is a discrepancy between domestic needs and international obligations. We discuss the chal- lenges of implementing the laws related to elephants and ivory in Thailand, and make recommendations to inform future conservation management.


Elephants in Thailand: past and present


Since the 13th century, Thai people have captured wild ele- phants and taken advantage of their strength and resilience for transportation, farm and forestry work (Pravorapakpibul, 1961;Ibn Muḥammad Ibrāhīm, 1972;Pallegoix, 2000;Fine Arts Department, 2013). Elephants were in historical times alsousedtoadministerpunishments, eithertofrightenoffend- ers or execute criminals (Ibn Muḥammad Ibrāhīm, 1972). The establishment of the Elephant Department during the early Ayutthaya period (1420s) reflected the importance of elephants in warfare (Pravorapakpibul, 1961; Fine Arts Department, 2013); during this time, kings went to battle on the backs of elephants (Fine Arts Department, 2013), and there is still a unit under the Royal Office responsible for royal elephants (Fine Arts Department, 2013). From the 1600s onwards trained elephants were exported, largely to India (Pallegoix, 2000;FineArts Department, 2013). Trade in both elephants and ivory was permitted under the King’s administration until the initial period of Thailand’sRattana- kosin Era in the early 1800s (De La Loubère, 1969;Fine Arts Department, 2013). With technological advancements, the use of elephants as draught animals began to decline. Cap- tive elephants in Thailand are now largely used in tourism


(Phuangkumet al., 2005), but they still hold considerable cul- tural value (FineArtsDepartment, 2013). There are estimated to be c. 3,800 captive and nearly 3,500 wild Asian elephants in Thailand (Ministry of Environment and Forestry, 2017; DNP, 2020). In 1998 the Thai government designated 13 March as


Thai Elephant Day, and in 2001 the Asian elephant was of- ficially declared to be the national animal, to recognize the species’ significance for the country’smonarchy, history and culture (Office of the Prime Minister, 1998, 2001; Fine Arts Department, 2013). Elephants with distinctive characteris- tics (e.g. exceptionally pale or darker skin than usual) are legally recognized as so-called auspicious elephants and are required to be presented to the King under the Wild Elephant Protection Act B.E. 2464 (1921). Auspicious ele- phants are a symbol of the power and authority of the King as a divine God, bringing propitiousness and agricul- tural productivity, and were also traditionally used for royal transport (Fine Arts Department, 2013). Religious beliefs in- clude the reincarnation of the Buddha as a white elephant (Sukumar, 2003). In addition, elephants have been depicted in various official symbols, including the national flag used during 1817–1917, with a white elephant in the centre of a red flag (Fine Arts Department, 2013). The Kui people regard knowledge about elephants as an important part of ethnic identity and a component of Thailand’s cultural heritage (Ministry of Culture, 2018). The oldest ivory artefacts in Thailand date to almost


4,000 BCE (Na Nakhonphanom, 2013). Ivory carving was among the traditional Thai art forms dated from the Ayutthaya era. Later, Rattanakosin’s Kings established a department producing traditional art pieces and utilities, including ivory carving, for royal use (Teanpewroj, 2015). Ivory has also been kept in temples for worship, and pre- sented to revered persons, as some Thai people believe a supernatural spirit protects elephants (Bangkok Biz News, 2014). A pair of polished tusks, mounted on wooden bases, is often kept in Thai houses, near altar-tables or in meditation areas. A recent survey indicated that 2–3%of Thai people are ivory consumers, with ivory purchases often tied to the belief in its supernatural benefits (USAID Wildlife Asia, 2018). Jewellery is the most common ivory product found in Thai markets, followed by sacred objects and decorative items, with individual items priced at THB 500–80,000 (USD 15–2,540; USAID Wildlife Asia, 2018; Bank of Thailand, 2019). Commercial ivory carving probably began in the late


1930s at Phayuhakhiri in Nakhon Sawan province in central Thailand, to satisfy the demand for worship items blessed by revered monks. Carvings included Buddha amulets, knives with ivory sheaths and handles, and animal figurines (Stiles, 2003, 2009). With the growth of tourism in Thailand in the 1970s, manufacturing shifted to products desired by for- eigners such as jewellery, East Asian figurines and utilities,


Oryx, 2022, 56(4), 601–608 © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605321000077


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