Sustainable use of ivory in Thailand 603
and expanded to adjacent areas (Stiles, 2003). People in Uthai Thani, a nearby province, specialize in making steel and silver products decorated with ivory, and in Manorom in Chai Nat province, south of Phayuhakhiri, people carve Singha (lion figurines) and other sacred items (Stiles, 2009). In the north-east, Thatum in Surin province has many captive elephants, and traditional knowledge about elephants and their training has been passed down many generations of Kui people (Chomdee et al., 2013). In the past, raw ivory was mainly privately kept or sold as sacred items. Historically, some ivory was carved into Buddha figurines, but since the 2000s, commer- cial carving into a wide range of jewellery has become com- mon in Thatum, to meet market demand. Captive Asian elephants are a source of ivory in Thailand
and other Asian countries such as Myanmar and Lao PDR (Sukumar, 2003; Vigne & Martin, 2017, 2018). In the past, the tusks of captive elephants were not usually cut, as the animals were left to roam freely in forests during periods when they were not required for work. There, the elephants used their tusks for defence, foraging and digging, which naturally shortens the tusks (Vanapithak, 1995; Sukumar, 2003).Nowmost captive elephants have less access to forests and limited use for their tusks. This can lead to tusks grow- ing overly long or crossing over at the tips, which needs management for animal welfare reasons. Tuskers also face the risk of being killed or injured by ivory poachers. Prominent tusks are mainly produced by male elephants and grow throughout life (Sukumar, 2003), by c. 17 cm per year (Phuangkum et al., 2005). Tusks of live elephants are usually trimmed every 2–3 years from 15 years of age (Stiles, 2009), and whole tusks are removed from dead individuals (Phuangkum et al., 2005;Stiles, 2009;Chomdee et al., 2013). Since the legislative reform in January 2015, the ivory
trade in Thailand appears to be in decline. Whereas 339 shops trading ivory were identified prior to the January 2015 legislative reform, this number decreased to 117 by 2018 (SC66 DOC. 29 ANNEX 8, 2015;SC70 Doc 27.4 Annex 21, 2018), and the quantity of products offered for sale in physical shops also decreased (Krishnasamy et al., 2016). However, the online trade is of concern and requires better regulation and law enforcement (Krishnasamy et al., 2016; WWF-Thailand, 2016). The shrinking of the ivory business is also evident in the decreasing number of active ivory craftsmen, mainly in Phayuhakhiri, one of the most important locations for the manufacturing of ivory pro- ducts: there were an estimated 50–100 ivory carvers in 1989, but only 50–60 in 2008 (Stiles, 2009). In the early 2000s, prior to the disruption of the illegal ivory trade by the Thai government in Phayuhakhiri, ivory carvers received a daily income of c. TBH 1,000–2,000 (USD 32–64). As trade restrictions reduced the demand for ivory carvings, some carvers began to work with other materials (e.g. wood, cattle
and ostrich bones), and others ceased carving entirely (MGR Online, 2018). The switch from ivory to cattle bone reduced the income of carvers by a mean of 35% (Stiles, 2003). In addition to the immediate effects on income, there is concern about the loss of the cultural knowledge of ivory carving (Stiles, 2003).
Elephant protection in Thailand
Elephant protection in Thailand (Fig. 1) dates back to the 17th century, when Thai peoplewere permitted to capture, but not kill, wild elephants (De La Loubère, 1969). Early legal pro- visions were designed to protect privately owned elephants (Draught Animals Act R.E.110, 1891), and included registration requirements, identification documents and import/export records. These measures are still in place (Draught Animals Act B.E. 2482, 1939; Pravorapakpibul, 1961, 1962). Wild elephants are mainly protected by the Wild
Elephant Protection Act and the Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act (WARPA). The former specifically im- poses measures to protect wild Asian elephants such as controlling capture and procedures related to auspicious elephants (Wild Elephant Protection Act R.E. 119, 1900; Wild Elephant Protection Act B.E. 2464, 1921). The latter involves regulations concerning wildlife generally, and wild- life parts and products. It also prohibits hunting of any animals in protected areas (Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act B.E. 2503, 1960; Announcement of the Na- tional Executive Council No., 228, 1972;Wild Animal Reser- vation and Protection Act B.E. 2535, 1992; Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act (No. 3)B.E. 2557, 2014;Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act B.E. 2562, 2019). WildAsian elephants have been protected underWARPA
since 1975, with a complete ban on commercial uses since 1992 (Ministerial Regulation No. 10 (B.E. 2518)issuedunder the Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act B.E. 2503, 1975; Ministerial Notification on prescribing possession limit of protected animals according to the Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act B.E. 2503, 1976;Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act B.E. 2535, 1992; Ministerial Regulation No. 4 (B.E. 2537) issuing under theWild Animal Reservation and Protection Act B.E. 2535, 1994). In 2015,the African elephant was the first non-native species to be added to the list of protected animals under WARPA (Ministerial Regulation on prescribing protected animals (No. 3)B.E. 2558, 2015). The Act does not apply to animals protected by the Draught Animals Act, including captive Asian elephants (Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act B.E. 2535, 1992). It was amended in 2019 to increase penalties and ex- tend control over the possession and domestic trade of CITES-listed species (Wild Animal Reservation and Protec- tion Act B.E. 2562, 2019). Thai laws currently categorize elephants into three groups: captive Asian elephants (draught elephants and
Oryx, 2022, 56(4), 601–608 © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605321000077
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