386 B. Karlsdóttir et al.


included availability of financial resources, infrastructure for captive breeding, species prioritization, captive envi- ronmental control systems, species-specific information, amphibian husbandry expertise, and staff training and expertise. Inadequate information on the threat status of species often hampered this stage, and poor planning and species prioritization often led to barriers at a later stage. This is illustrated by the statement of one respondent: ‘I think the biggest failure was the initial planning. Why? Because I would have liked to start with another pro- gramme, not just with what .. . is most attractive’. A global network of partners was important as local


capacity was often limited. Key partners were instrumental in facilitating a network, providing resources and access to interested donors. Parent organizations sometimes provided facilities and staff, and the Amphibian Ark seed grant often funded equipment. Partner input on staff training and facility design was important.


FIG. 2 The most critical and most common categories of barriers and enablers identified from the analytical framework, and the critical barriers summaries, based on the number of sources in which a category was identified.


Firstly, we commonly observed a reactively implemented


programme process (Fig. 4a), whereby decisions and actions responded to the perceived urgency of species declines. It presents a predictable pathway of barriers and enablers (sensu Linklater, 2003). Secondly, we developed a model of an ideal proactively implemented programme process (Fig. 4b), synthesized and structured from the barriers and enablers identified by managers. This model promotes stra- tegic planning by providing recommendations for future implementation processes and partnership support. Depending on the programme, overlaps and learning


loops between the different stages can occur. Implementing the proactive model requires a shift in actions and resources throughout the programme process. We used this structure of stages to classify programmes, summarizing their respec- tive critical barriers (Fig. 3).


Stage 1: Establishing a programme This stage spanned the conceptualization of a programme to the collection of foun- der individuals. It typically involved the selection of spe- cies for which conservation action is most important and the preparation of facilities. Main barriers and enablers


Stage 2: Husbandry and breeding Husbandry and subse- quent attempts to breed amphibians began after founder animals had been collected. The aimwas to breed a sufficient- ly large, genetically viable founding population for the an- ticipated programme duration. This stage mainly comprised a learning process of developing husbandry and breeding protocols (Fig. 4). Main barriers and enablers were similar to Stage 1: captive environmental control systems, species- specific information, permits, food and nutrition, amphibian husbandry expertise, and staff training and expertise. Many programmes managed to develop protocols


despite lacking information on the target species’ ecology, biology and requirements in captivity. Fifteen of 20 pro- grammes were breeding viable offspring for one or more species, and only five programmes stated lack of breeding success for a species. Lack of staff training and expertise was a primary cause of failures: ‘they sprayed them with F10 [a disinfectant] thinking it was water... So again it’scoming back to trained personnel being switched on’. Programmes often lacked experience and knowledge


on a species, and external advice was essential for resolving husbandry challenges. For independent programmes, lim- itations in fundraising for staff often led to low salaries and staff retention, whereas prioritization of staff time was a challenge in zoos. Staff training was the third most com- monly provided resource by partners. Workshops, training courses and internships were undertaken, and informal dis- cussions between managers and partners provided context- specific advice perceived as vital for problem solving.


Stage 3: Preparing for reintroductions At this stage,managers worked proactively towards making reintroductions feasible, which included developing reintroduction protocols andmiti- gating threats in the wild. Barriers and enablers differed from


Oryx, 2021, 55(3), 382–392 © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605320000332


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