464 R. L. Gasparini‐Morato et al. As a pre-condition for reintroduction, the highest prior-
PLATE 2 (a) Jaguar 1 with her 6–7 month old cub, photo-trapped in December 2018, and (b) Jaguar 2 and her two 4–5 month old cubs, photo-trapped in December 2018.
activity was similar to that previously reported for jaguars, with both individuals moving (hunting and transiting) dur- ing the night and resting during the day (Kanda et al., 2019). We identified 10 species preyed upon by the two jaguars (Table 2). Social interactions were observed between the two jaguars and nine other individual jaguars), including mating, fighting and paired movement. Jaguar 1 gave birth to a cub in c. June 2018 and jaguar 2 gave birth to two cubs in c. August 2018 (Plate 2). The two jaguars established residence near the enclo-
sure, with home ranges, and movement and activity patterns similar to those reported for free living individuals (Morato et al., 2016), and prey consumption similar to that recorded in a previous study in the same area (Cavalcanti & Gese, 2010), including a high consumption of caimans. The exhib- ition of social interactions, and reproduction, indicate that the reintroduction was successful. The main objective of a reintroduction is usually to re-
establish or supplement an extinct or declining population (Cheyne, 2006). We released two individuals in an area where jaguars are not facing a high risk of extinction (Morato et al., 2013) and threats are low. Our intention was to evaluate a protocol that could be applied to other subpo- pulations across the species’ range, and specifically for the Critically Endangered subpopulation of the Atlantic Forest (Morato et al., 2013). Despite the success of this reintroduc- tion in the Pantanal we need to be cautious in using this tool for the species’ long-term survival.
ity must be to address the threats that are causing jaguar population declines. Firstly, some jaguar subpopulations are proximal to areas where people are active, potentially resulting in negative interactions. Jaguars involved in such interactions are often killed by members of the affected community (Inskip et al., 2013). In such areas, law enforce- ment to prevent killing of jaguars, and alleviation of nega- tive interactions with ranchers, are required and should play a central role in planning any reintroduction (Caruso & Pérez, 2013). Secondly, in areas that have undergone deforestation (Ribeiro et al., 2009) or defaunation (Jorge et al., 2013), it is important to evaluate habitat quality and prey availability before establishing a reintroduction programme. Thirdly, social interaction is a key compo- nent. The absence of intersexual territoriality (Crawshaw & Quigley, 1991) suggests that reintroducing female jaguars is likely to increase the success of reintroductions in areas where male jaguars are present. Fourthly, jaguars tend to move in areas with which they are familiar, evidence of cog- nitive capacity and spatial memory (Kanda et al., 2019), and therefore building enclosures in the release area and keeping individuals there prior to release may facilitate acclimation. Fifthly, the cost of reintroduction needs to be compared to alternative strategies. The total cost for reintroducing the two female jaguars was c. USD 111,490, without considering the costs of previous studies of the species’ behaviour in the same area. This reintroduction was in an area where spatial ecology, habitat and prey preferences were known (Cavalcanti & Gese, 2009, 2010; Morato et al., 2016). In the Atlantic Forest on the Argentina–Brazil border the main strategy for the southernmost jaguar subpopulation was to reduce persecution and poaching by means of edu- cation and law enforcement. The annual cost of the pro- gramme was c. USD 97,000 and after 10 years the jaguar population increased from an estimated 50 to 90 individuals (Paviolo et al., 2016). In conclusion, reintroduction can be an important tool
in areas where the jaguar population is in severe decline. It is the only option where the species has been extirpated and the management goal is reintroduction, residency and recovery. This study defines some of the practices and para- meters that led to a successful outcome in the Pantanal.
Acknowledgements We thank Centro de Reabilitação de Animais Silvestres de Campo Grande and Instituto de Meio Ambiente de Mato Grosso do Sul for rescuing the jaguars; Mantenedor Santa Rosa for hosting and caring for them; Caiman Ecological Refuge for allowing us to build the training facility and release the jaguars on their prop- erty; Alexandre Bossi, Camila Martins, Écio Silva, Fernando Von Zuben, Márcia Reed, Pedro Lacerda Camargo, Raphael Klabin, Robert Kozmann Jr, and Roberto Klabin and Instituto SOS Pantanal for their support; Log Materials and Bushnell Corporation for donat- ing camera traps; and Tetrapak for donating materials to build the enclosure.
Oryx, 2021, 55(3), 461–465 © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605320000460
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