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THE EVIDENCE BASE

amount of stiffness for individuals in sports where there is notable stretch shortening cycle activity is the challenge for clinicians. In other sports such as cycling, swimming, and boxing there is little utilisation of the energy absorbing capability of the muscle and tendon. In such activities, tendons and muscle therefore have less risk of injury. Thus, if the individual can move through the range of motion required to undertake the skills involved in such sports, the need for stretching is not essential (19). In fact, stretching could be detrimental to performance in these sports, as it may decrease both the rate and magnitude of force production.

THE AUTHOR Dr Peter McNair, PhD is the director of the Health & Rehabilitation Research Centre at Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand. He is also a professor in the school of physiotherapy and was a founding member of the Centre with a background in sports physio- therapy and clinical biomechanics. His research interests involve viscoelasticity of soft tissues and functional performance following injury or disease. His recent research has focused upon the effects of osteoarthritis on knee joint function. Peter currently sits on the Editorial Boards of the international journals Clinical Biomechanics, the Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport and Physical Therapy in Sports.

References 1. Gajdosik R, Vander-Linden D, McNair P, Riggin T, Albertson J, Mattick D, et al. Slow passive stretch and release characteristics of the calf mus- cles of older women with limited dorsiflexion range of motion. Clinical Biomechanics 2004;19:398-406 2. Nordez A, McNair P, Casari P, Cornu C. Acute changes in hamstrings musculo-articular dissipative properties induced by cyclic and static stretching. International Journal of Sports Medicine 2007;in press 3. Magnusson P, Simonsen E, Aagaard P, Sorensen H, Kjaers M. A mechanism for altered flexibility in human skeletal muscle. Journal of Physiology 1996;497(1):291-298 4. Maganaris P, Paul J. Load-elongation characteristics of in vivo human ten- don and aponeurosis. Journal of Experimental Biology 2000;203:751-56 5. Magnusson P, Aagaard P, Rosager S, Dyhre-Poulsen P, Kjaer M. Load-displacement properties of the human triceps surae complex invivo. Journal of Physiology 2001;531:277-288 6. Muramatsu T, Muraoka T, Takeshita D, Kawakami Y, Fukunaga Y. In vivo mechanical properties of proximal and distal aponeuroses in human tibialis anterior muscle. Cells Tissues Organs 2002;170:162-169 7. McNair P, Hewson D, Dombroski E, Stanley S. Stiffness and passive peak force changes at the ankle joint: the effect of different joint angular velocities. Clinical Biomechanics 2002;17:536-540 8. Hufschmidt A, Mauritz K. Chronic transformation of muscle in spasticity: a peripheral contribution to increased tone. Joural of Neurol ogy, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1985;48:676-685 9. Herbert R, Moseley A, Butler J, Gandevia S. Change in length of relaxed muscle fascicles and tendons with knee and ankle movements in humans. Journal of Physiology 2002;539:637-645 10. McNair P, Dombroski E, Hewson D, Stanley S. Stretching at the ankle joint: viscoelastic responses to holds and continuous passive motion. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 2001;33(3):354-358 11. McNair P, Stanley S. Effect of passive stretching and jogging on the

KEY POINTS

Stretching at 80% of maximum range of motion will elicit significant decreases in tension in the muscles under stretch.

Initial stretches at greater than 80% of maximum range of motion will often elicit muscle activation.

Initial stretches at slow joint speeds are beneficial as they elicit less resistance in the stretched tissues.

Compared to dynamic stretches, static holds toward the end of range of motion are more effective at decreasing the maximum tension in the muscle.

When undertaking holds toward the end of range of motion, the most economical time to hold a stretch is between 20-30 seconds.

Whether you are performing static holds or dynamic stretches, the greatest reductions in resistive torque occur in the first repetition.

Compared to static holds toward the end of range of motion, dynamic stretches are more effective at decreasing stiffness through the range of motion.

Static holds performed immediately before a maximal voluntary contraction may affect performance detrimentally.

Acute stretching may be valuable in optimising stretch- shorten cycle activity.

If a person has sufficient range of motion and stiffness for the activities that they undertake in a sport, then the need to stretch for that sport is not essential.

series elastic muscle stiffness and range of motion of the ankle joint. British Journal of Sports Medicine 1996;30:313-318 12. Taylor D, Dalton J, Seaber A, Garrett W. Viscoelastic properties of muscle-tendon units. The biomechanical effects of stretching. American Journal of Sports Medicine 1990;18(3):300-309 13. McHugh M, Magnusson P, Gleim G, Nicholas J. Viscoelastic stress relaxation in human skeletal muscle. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 1992;24(12):1375-1382 14. Magnusson P, Simonsen E, Dyhre-Poulsen P, Aagaard P, Mohr T, Kjaers M. Viscoelastic stress relaxation during static stretch in human skeletal muscle in the absence of EMG activity. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sport 1996;6:323-328 15. Bandy W, Irion J, Briggler M. The effect of time and frequency of static stretching on flexibility of the hamstring muscles. Physical Therapy 1997;77(10):1090-1096 16. Evetovich T, Nauman N, Conley D, Todd J. Effect of static stretching of the biceps brachii on torque, electromyography, and mechanomyogra- phy during concentric isokinetic muscle actions. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 2003;17:484-488 17. Cramer J, Housh T, Weir J, Johnson G, Coburn J, Beck T. The acute effects of static stretching on peak torque, mean power output, elec- tromyography and mechanography. European Journal of Applied Physiology 2005;93:530-539 18. McHugh M, Connolly D, Eston R, Kremenic I, Nicholas S, Gleim G. The role of passive muscle stiffness in symptoms of exercise induced muscle damage. American Journal of Sports Medicine 1999;27:594-599 19. Witvrouw E, Mahieu N, Danneels L, McNair P. Stretching and injury prevention: an obscure relationship. Sports Medicine 2004;34:443-449.

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