differences in attitudes towards animals and coexistence (Nyhus 2016; Rupprecht 2017) and public education and discussion programmes through schools and community service organizations to expand the understanding of non-human urban residents (their ways of life and urban geographies). This may require exploring ways to give a voice in governance to non-humans (Beatley and Bekoff 2013) and developing regulatory strategies to protect plants and animals from harm.
Finally, transitional measures include preparing people for new animals that may appear in their cities as a result of climate change or biodiversity loss, including new animal disease vectors, and the emigration of other species. Such changes will result in the emergence of novel urban ecosystems, beyond those such as ornamental gardens that already characterize most cities (Ahern 2016). The emergence of new species compositions is particularly common to habitat patches affected or abandoned by humans and that remain part of the urban fabric (Kowarik 2018). This complex dynamic cannot be controlled, but it does call for active support of existing and native biodiversity to prevent the localized extinction of species by protecting existing habitat quality and creating landscape connections. Oslo’s bee highway (Figure 4.3) is a good example of a purpose- built connection. The initiative is the first of its kind and is designed to provide pollinator pathways through the city for both wild and domesticated bee populations via urban landscape design and maintenance, habitat protection, dedicated private gardens and beekeeping facilities. This experiment appears to be working as intended, although “precautionary zones” have been identified in the city, where wild bees may need additional protection in the future through the addition of flowering plants (Stange et al. 2017). A more futuristic proposal, which builds on earlier landscape models such as the Emerald Necklace in Boston in the United States is the Rutas Naturbanas habitat corridor that runs through the entire city of San Jose Costa Rica and whose first kilometre was funded by a private company. These large-scale landscape interventions may provide opportunities to design city wildland buffers both to protect
Figure 4.3: Oslo’s bee highway
animals from human intrusion and to protect people from the dangers of the presence of wildlife, such as attacks and disease transmission.
The third dimension of integrated urban action has clear linkages to the first two. It highlights the fact that inclusivity, fairness and justice are prerequisites for building a circular economy and that a circular economy benefits non-human species (dimension one). In terms of the second dimension, this connects with urban design and resilience plans and investment, as well as early warning systems and disaster recovery.
The third dimension is also perhaps the most challenging to achieve. Cities throughout the world have struggled to create just and inclusive places, plans and policies for their different residents. Cities need to recognize patterns of social and environmental injustice and address the fact that plans and policies that work for one group may not work for another due to factors such as gender, race or ethnicity, migration status, age, economic status, caste, religion and ability. There can be significant gaps between state policy goals and practice on the ground. While empowerment is challenging in all types of cities, this is especially true in places with weak rule of law and protections for individual rights or where there are high levels of insecurity or traditions of equity planning are lacking. Challenges to social participation and co-production increase during wars, natural disasters, pandemics and other calamities. Yet mobilizing residents around inclusion, institutional support for social learning and explicit equity planning and participation policies are crucial for further inclusion and justice (chapter 2).
The value of multispecies cities, characterized by a consideration for the well-being of biodiversity and the requirements to allow animals and plants to persist and thrive, may be new for some people. However, as the idea of planning for urban nature becomes more widespread, it is being embraced by an increasing number of scholars and planning practitioners (Russo and Cirello 2017; Arof et al.
Source: Adapted from Food Tank 2016 82 GEO for Cities
© Gian Carlo
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