EARLY-CHILDHOOD NUTRITION, SCHOOLING, AND SIBLING INEQUALITY 85 Table 4.8 Mathematical test results: Cluster fixed effects Probit Explanatory variable Age 8 years in 2004 Age 9 years in 2004
Addition (1)
0.9223 (3.49)
1.3734 (4.40)
Cluster fixed effects Yes
Mean dependent variable 0.8169 Mean Haz
Pseudo R2 Within-cluster R2
Number of observations 209 Number of groups
239 235 224
–0.7587 0.2594
Subtraction (2)
Haz 0.1934 0.1363 (3.10)
(2.47)
0.6781 (2.94)
1.4401 (5.23)
Female –0.0392 –0.2702 (0.17)
(1.31) Yes
0.6796 –0.7587
0.2210
Multiplication (3)
0.0794 (1.53)
0.9498 (3.92)
1.8873 (6.81)
–0.2436 (1.19)
Yes
0.4507 –0.7587
0.2720
Division (4)
0.0579 (1.02)
0.6686 (2.22)
1.4923 (4.99)
–0.1616 (0.75)
Yes
0.1901 –0.7587
0.2092 0.2192
284 54
Sources: University of KwaZulu-Natal / International Food Policy Research Institute / University of Wisconsin-Madison (1998, 2004).
Notes: Numbers in parentheses are absolute t-values. Sample consists of children aged 7–9 years in 2004 and with consistent ages between 1998 and 2004. Specifications include age fixed effects and over-age and under-age indicators for reported age in 1998. Though probit estimation with cluster dummies (columns 1–4) automatically omits observations from clusters in which it perfectly predicts the dependent variable, the computation of dependent and height-for-age z-score means includes those clusters. Haz means height-for-age z-score, 1998.
Linear Total
correct (5)
0.1046 (2.61)
0.8148 (4.54)
1.4263 (7.61)
–0.1551 (1.06)
Yes
2.1373 –0.7587
racy during the period 1993–98. The South African School Act and the Norms and Standards for School Funding were announced in 1996 and 1998, respec- tively; these introduced compulsory nonsegregated education throughout the system (although the reforms would take some time to have an effect). It is also important to note that by 2004, this group of children was in transition from primary to secondary education. This may create heterogene- ity by age in the effects of the height-for-age z-score on schooling outcomes. Therefore, it is important to examine possible variations in the height effect by age. The role of positive returns to health is expected to be greater among older children than younger children.
Table 4.9 shows the effects of the height-for-age z-score on grades com- pleted and repeated. All the specifications control household fixed effects (using sibling variation within a household). Column 1 has only the height
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