Transcripts
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Now just to give you a fairly exaggerated example, if you’re trying to get people to plant new varieties of rice and use fertilizer to increase their yields, which you hope is a scale-neutral technology that can be used by smallholders, then why not at the same time combat malaria, inoculate people against disease, clean up the water supply? Because all of these will give you better health, which is a good thing in itself but, of course, healthier farmers can work harder in the fields and so that complements the agricultural measures. And while we’re at it, we’re going to build some new access roads, because that will improve price relatives at the farm gate and reduce isolation. And while we’re at it, we’ll run an adult literacy campaign, because literate farmers can read the labels on fertiliser packs, and so on and so forth.
So there was the idea that you should try and do things in development in an integrated fashion across all sectors, because you get synergy, and you get more than the sum of the parts going on. Now integrated rural development was very, very exciting to work in. You got all kinds of things to have a go at, and you’ve got quite a lot of resources to play with, but these resources were limited compared with needs. So what happened with integrated rural development was within any country, what you did was you took a country, and a country might look just like that, and it might have its capital there, and you take a country that looks just like that, and you do integrated rural development and you do it there, there, there, there, there, oh and there. And yes, that is to scale yes, that is to scale. In other words, you get these little enclaves of very small areas, where donors are putting in resources and everything is done.
And in the early 1970s, Kenya had six small integrated rural programmes, which were very, very well documented and some contemporary, very influential thinkers about development worked on those projects in the early 1970s. But look how tiny they are. That really is to scale. These things were in very small areas indeed. Why? Because, although you could target resources for a small area, you couldn’t have the whole country running the kind of programmes that were run there. So because you did everything in integrated rural development, you could only do it on a small scale, concentrated in particular areas.
Now those six small experiences, I think, were all successes. They were successes, but I think, with the benefit of hindsight, we would have to say that they were unrepeatable and institutionally unsustainable. When the donors got bored, and the funds ran out, and the foreign experts’ contracts ended, and the Land Rovers began to rust, these projects essentially stopped. Indeed, I arrived in this part of Kenya in 1979, which had been the administrative headquarters, and there were two or three filing cabinets chock-a with files in my room. And I left them there for a while, and then one day I thought, what on earth? And I went through these filing cabinets, and it was sort of all the stuff on, sort of, four or five years, ten years earlier, of the implementation of this. Minutes, plans, documents, contracts, budgets, semi-annual reports, monthly reports, all this kind of stuff. And I looked at this, and I said, my goodness, this is a vital bit of development history here, but it’s clogging up my office. So it all went in the skip. There’s never, never enough historians around to document these experiences, and that’s the sort of way. And as I threw them into the skip, I thought, well there you go, good idea at the time, good people working on it, quite a success, but not sustainable.
CD2 Track 16 Ex 6.1
Listen and complete the notes.
I think that realism excludes the possibility – and it’s a growing one – that states can simply isolate themselves from the outside world. The growth of television, the growth of mass communications, have meant that it’s virtually impossible for states to ignore what’s going on around them, and public opinion has become more important in some respects within states, forcing states to do things that they might not otherwise do. So the strict application of power in terms of maintaining the hierarchy, of ignoring the interests of others, is simply slowly being withered away.
CD2 Track 17 Ex 6.3
Listen and complete the notes.
Ten years later, therefore, we have the Scandinavian ideas impacting on British office design. Another illustration of that might be, you’ll discover in the course of the lecture, that some of the factors which are driving the unusual, sometimes, configuration of
Listening 93
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