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Chapter 2: State of the Environment and Policy Response


Degradation of ecosystems


Habitat destruction is one of the major impacts of human activity, together with associated effects including species loss, genetic loss and simplification and deterioration of ecosystem services. Habitat degradation puts at risk a whole range of species – estimated to number 1 166 (IUCN 2015), including neglected crops and wild relatives of fruit trees and other plants found in extreme environmental conditions, such as in Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and Iraq, all of which hold genes that are considered important resources for future research on new crop varieties (Gurevitch and Padilla 2004; Lebanon 2009; Syrian Arab Republic 2009; CBD 2014;). In most West Asian countries, there is a high risk of losing habitats such as wetlands, forests and coastal areas due to overgrazing, wood harvesting, conflicts, and droughts and desertification. One of the main reasons is the low investment in wetland conservation and marine protected areas (Eppink et al. 2014).


Overriding the carrying capacity of ecosystems


The biocapacity of terrestrial ecosystems in the region has been surpassed many times over. Wood cutting, overgrazing and illegal hunting contribute to the degradation of biological resources and remain the most significant threats to the vegetation in this area (IUCN WDPA 2012).With forests and woodlands covering only about 1.9 per cent of its total land area, West Asia’s forests account for 0.6 per cent of the world total (FAO 2014). In the region, only Lebanon has more than 10 per cent forest cover and nine countries have forests that cover less than 1 per cent of their total land area.


These ecosystems are not well managed and are particularly prone to fires and wood cutting. Intensive grazing practices are still a common source of livelihood in some countries of the region. Overgrazing leads to land degradation and soil erosion, decreases land productivity and threatens wildlife, as has happened in Jordan. In all of West Asia, local communities depend on economic and medicinal plants for subsistence, health care and bioprospecting (CBD 2014),with high numbers of aromatic and medicinal plant species widely distributed in Jordan, Lebanon, OPT and Syria (Syrian Arab Republic 2009). These are massively used by local people in


folk medicine (Grandcourt 2012), which is causing serious threats to natural habitats.


Even though hunting is regulated in all West Asian countries, illegal hunting remains common in the region, with twice as many illegal hunters as legal ones (Merlo and Croitorou 2005). The main reasons for hunting include sport, the use of animals in traditional medicine and as a source of food, and illegal trade in exotic animals. For example, in Iraq, hunting has been the main source of income for most rural and urban communities, resulting in the loss of many wild species including globally endangered ones (Republic of Iraq 2014). The application of regulatory measures is hindered in most countries by weak law enforcement coupled with inadequate implementation mechanisms and tools.


The status of marine biodiversity is not much better than that of terrestrial ecosystems. Studies have now suggested that fishery resources are overexploited and that regional management of marine resources is underdeveloped. Threats to species from overfishing and by-catch are increasing and are exacerbated by rising fishing capacity and effort, particularly in the dominant artisanal fisheries. It is reported that as many as 98 species of fish are currently overfished in the Gulf, especially the majority of demersal species (Grandcourt 2012). Illegal fishing methods in the eastern Mediterranean Sea such as the use of poison, dynamite and electrical devices are also commonplace (UNEP 2010). Although statistical catch data remain inaccurate in the region, recent reports suggest that many of these fisheries are unsustainable and require immediate action (De Young 2006).


Despite the existence of institutional and legal mechanisms for fisheries management, a series of problems have been identified (PERSGA 2002). The existence and magnitude of the problems vary from country to country. A general but non-exhaustive list includes: shortage of qualified staff and lack of financial resources to increase their number; shortage of operating funds for existing institutions; outdated and inefficient legislative and management frameworks and, in particular, lack of strength and clarity in the laws for effective management, monitoring, control and surveillance, all of which contribute to a lack of or poor enforcement of fisheries


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