Chapter 1: Regional Context and Priorities
governance. The National Environmental Action Plan and the National Strategy for Environmental Sustainability determine overall environmental goals and objectives while the Environmental Protection Authority is the main national environmental institution, though it works alongside other institutions such as the Ministry of Water and Environment. However, there are several other institutions and laws with overlapping scope and responsibilities (Almutawakel 2015; International Business Publications 2013; UNDP 2012). Additionally, inadequate technical and financial resources and a lack of access to appropriate information may hinder environmental governance in Yemen. These three countries mirror the status of environmental governance in many parts of West Asia.
Several countries in the region, including Bahrain, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and Syria, specifically address the issue of environmental governance in their national plans. All countries address environmental issues through multiple plans, such as those related to climate change, ecosystem management, harmful and hazardous waste, disasters and conflicts, resource efficiency, and sustainable consumption and production. Even when countries of West Asia do address the environment, most of their resources are devoted to other matters that are perceived as more pressing, such as security and/or the economy, as public awareness of environmental issues remains low. The result is that governments are not pressed to devote additional effort and resources to address and streamline environmental issues (UNEP-ROWA 2015).
1.3.2 Enhancing environmental governance Participation
Effective governance requires that institutions are able to provide services to their constituents and that they have good relationships with other organisations, especially those representing stakeholders. The coordination of actors and programmes within the environment sector is a challenge everywhere, and more so in countries of the region where capacity and resources are often inadequate. This makes
environmental governance an even greater cause of concern. Rivalries are common among institutions, especially when there are many laws and strategies that often overlap, and as a result stakeholders become tangled in a web of rules and regulations over which they have little say or control (UNDP 2013).
It is important that stakeholders are involved in environmental decision-making processes, particularly as many of these decisions ultimately impact them or their immediate environment, for example waste collection and management, water and sanitation, and air and noise pollution. To date, environmental issues remain largely in the realm of national governments, with little participation from local authorities except to enforce or implement decisions (Samaha 2015; Stel et al. Husseini 2015).
Accountability and effectiveness
Involving stakeholders, including civil society organisations (CSOs), in decision-making processes and reaching decisions through consensus are key factors for accountable and effective environmental governance. In addition, involving stakeholders in follow-up activities can make public administrators and institutions more accountable. National capacities for accountability (Box 1.3.2) can be further improved through better access to data management and monitoring, human and financial resources, effective engagement of the private sector and civil society, and the generation, processing, analysis and dissemination of information in a transparent and enabling manner (Ghrer 2013; UNDP 2013).
Equality and equity
Since the environment generates benefits, it has a value, which should be protected by all those involved, including public, private and civil society organizations. Appropriate and fair policies are necessary to support social equity and equality, and could be achieved through a greater inclusion of all stakeholders, regardless of status, gender, age or power. Equality and equity, both within and between generations,
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