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groundwater and soil. Furthermore, conflicts around Kirkuk’s oil fields have the potential to lead to further contamination and health-related impacts. These consequences might once again put strong environmental pressure on Iraq (Zwijnenburg 2015).


3.


Loss of biodiversity due to the Palestinian- Israeli conflict


Due to the ongoing conflict, approximately 300 plant species have been listed on the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List of Endangered Species, posing significant risks to ecosystem balance. Furthermore, several species of aquatic birds, among which a large proportion nests and breeds in Wadi Gaza, have also been labelled as threatened (UNEP 2005).


4. Impacts of conflict in Syria


Armed conflict in Syria led to an escalation of environmental problems and severe toxic footprint. Almost five years into the Syrian conflict, the environmental and health impacts resulting from military activities are beginning to appear. Alongside this, poverty is on the rise, aggravated by displacement of people and the destruction of public service infrastructure such as schools and hospitals. A significant portion of the population has fled to neighbouring countries and Europe, while even larger numbers have been internally displaced. By July 2015, the number of refugees in neighboring countries exceeded 4 million, while the number of internally displaced reached 7.6 million (UNHCR 2015; UNDP/UNRWA 2013). Furthermore, 7.9 million people’s livelihoods sank below the poverty line, of whom today more than 50 per cent live in extreme poverty. Poverty has been exacerbated by unemployment rates, still on the rise and reaching 48.6 per cent (UNDP/UNRWA/SCPR 2013). In this context, environmental pressures have been exerted both by armed conflicts and by their socio-economic consequences. These impacts are not limited to Syria, but also affect neighboring countries, chiefly Jordan, Turkey, andLebanon (Carrion 2015; Mencütek 2015). Additionally, the availability of water per person has decreased to one third of pre-crisis


levels, from 75 to 25 litres per day, further impacting health (UNICEF 2013). The deterioration of health and educational systems and shrinking gross domestic product (GDP) reflect the regression of Syria’s Human Development Index (HDI) rating, which by 2013 had decreased by 20.6 per cent on its 2010 value (UNDP/UNRWA/SCPR 2013). Once covering 3.3 per cent of the country, large areas of Syrian forests have been destroyed either by fire as a result of shelling or by excessive wood cutting for cooking and heating purposes due to fuel shortages. Several protected areas and wildlife reserves, as well as World Heritage Sites including Palmyra, have been burnt or destroyed.


5. Impact of conflict in Lebanon


After several years of civil war, Lebanon is still subject to continuous international and civil conflicts, and the country’s natural environment is suffering from severe stresses. Direct damage of the civil war include the destruction of infrastructure and agricultural lands, depletion of natural resources, and pollution of soil and groundwater. High numbers of displaced people, estimated at more than 70 000, have put further pressure on natural resources in specific regions and led to the abandonment of farmlands (AFED 2008). Among the most adverse effects of the 2006 were 1 200 fatalities, 4 000 injuries and up to 1 million displaced people, together with more than 10 000 tonnes of oil that leaked into the coastal waters, contaminating two thirds of Lebanon’s 225-kilometre coastline. The most affected habitats were harbours, caves and natural bays, where the oil was trapped, posing serious threats to biodiversity. In addition, ecologically important areas such as Palm Islands were contaminated, reversing conservation efforts. Along with sea contamination, the oil spill led to air pollution through evaporation and the release of toxic sprays (Heinrich Böll Foundation 2006).All this, along with the destruction of plantations and orchards, severely affected farming communities, with many impacts lasting to this day (UNEP 2007; Heinrich Böll Foundation 2006). Since 2011, due to the absence of proper governmental response plans, wastewater pollution has increased by one third and air pollution by 20 per cent. Furthermore, water quality has deteriorated and


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