74 Example 4


One implication of HRT having for organisation of work is that workers have social needs and managers ought to be aware of and respond to it. Whereas, to what extent their needs affect organisation productivity and how to deal with informal social power are not explicitly mentioned by Mayo.


INGREDIENTS OF GOOD PRACTICE


This section points out some weaknesses of EAP materials designed to teach TMs which might feed into student problems, such as the ones discussed above, and suggests ingredients of good practice in teaching TMs.


One weakness of some EAP materials is the use of pedagogic texts that have been enhanced by increasing the frequency of TMs to increase their saliency in the text (as done in Lynch & Anderson, 2013, for example). While this practice has its merits for teaching grammatical structures, for discourse markers, including TMs, it might create false impressions for students as to the expected frequency of TMs in their own texts, resulting in overuse. Therefore, following Granger & Tyson (1996), Narita et al. (2004) and Lei (2012), I propose that for teaching TMs, authentic academic texts should be used which model an appropriate frequency of TMs. By authentic texts, I mean texts which were written for other purposes than teaching the language. Authenticity of texts is one of the basic principles of EAP (Todd, 2003; Hyland & Hamp-Lyons, 2004) used to initiate students into the academic community (Spector- Cohen, Kirschner & Wexler, 2001). It could be objected that authentic texts are too difficult for some students to read. Authentic texts in EAP class, however, need not be only


Milada Walková


ones written by expert writers, e.g., journal articles, but can also include texts by student writers, e.g., good student examples, with the latter being more accessible to students. Another weakness of some EAP materials is controlled practice of TMs at sentence level (e.g., Paterson, 2013, p. 65). In this type of practice, students might be asked to choose from two or more TMs to complete a sentence or to use a TM to join two sentences. This type of activity, however, might create an impression in students that any two clauses or sentences can be joined by a TM, irrespective of context, and eventually lead to overuse and possibly semantic misuse when producing full texts. Since TMs are discourse markers (e.g., Maschler & Schiffrin, 2015), one of their functions is to organise ongoing discourse beyond sentence level; therefore, their controlled practice at sentence level only reduces them to their grammatical function. For this reason, I propose the use of TMs should be illustrated in and practised on longer stretches of text (cf. Gardner & Han, 2018). Again, it might be argued that long texts are too demanding for some students. I am not implying here that full texts need to be used, though – the teacher can choose a section of an authentic text appropriate to the level of the students. As to the question of which sections might especially lend themselves to the teaching of TMs, research is lacking (to the best of my knowledge) into frequency of TMs in various sections of specific student or expert genres. Nevertheless, we can expect to find the highest frequency and greatest variety of TMs in a literature review section or a discussion section of a research article (if the teacher is to use an expert text, see above) or a section of an essay where the author presents and rebuts a counterargument (if


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