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quality learning experiences, as she notes that the country has created a ‘sophisticated profession of teaching’ (p. 292) largely by improving the preparation practices of student teachers who in most cases ‘hold at least a two-year master’s degree that encompasses both strong subject matter and pedagogical preparation, and that integrates research and practice’ (p. 292). Darling- Hammond (ibid.) uses teacher qualifications and knowledge as signposts for quality education. While ITE has generally included a knowledge base that incorporates knowledge in content, pedagogy, educational contexts, psychology, pedagogical content knowledge and practice (Shulman & Shulman, 2004), it is the combination of these types of knowledge that is thought to be a successful model for preparing teachers to be effective facilitators of learning in their classrooms.


In addition to the generic knowledge base for teacher education, there has been a call for the inclusion of English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) in multilingual contexts. For example, researchers such as Wingate (2016), Macaro (2018), Lin (2016) and Macaro, Curle, Pun, An and Dearden (2018) point out the inadequacy of discourses in teaching knowledge that do not include preparation in the language of instruction. In other words, teacher preparation that only includes general pedagogy, content and pedagogical content knowledge is inadequate without proficiency in the language of learning and teaching (LoLT). In realising this inadequacy, in Europe, Australia and Asia there has been a concerted effort to prepare and develop all teachers in the skills and practice of using EAC (Lin, 2016). As a result, in recent years there has been a call for the explicit


Nhlanhla Mpofu and Mncedisi C. Maphalala


preparation of student teachers in the use of the LoLT. Additionally, Pawan (2008) notes that such preparation requires a collaborative instructional approach that results from a cooperation between general English teachers and subject content teachers. Consequently, the importance of language in learning across the curriculum has gained credence in education in recent years. That is, there has been recognition that disciplinary learning and knowledge acquisition are strongly dependent on proficient use of ‘… academic writing in English’ in the LoLT (Hyland, 2018, p. 383). Vygotsky (1978) provides theoretical insights to explain the relationship between meaning, language context and knowledge construction, highlighting that a symbiotic relationship exists between language and thought. This relationship explains why students are not able to comprehend disciplinary concepts if they do not understand the word presentation (the language). This suggests that, beyond the general language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing, students require successful disciplinary linguistic skills to be successful in disciplinary learning. In South Africa, to address the preparation of student teachers in the LoLT, both the Department of Higher Education (DHET), which is responsible for ITE, and the Department of Basic Education (DBE), which oversees learning and teaching in the primary and high schools, advocate an EAC approach. The DHET, through its Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications (2015), stipulates that all ITE graduates should have an endorsement on their certificate confirming their proficiency in the use of at least one LoLT. In South Africa, there are two official LoLTs, namely English and Afrikaans,


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